Mixed Ionic-Elecronic Conductive Materials For Alkali Metal Transport During Battery Cycling, and Batteries Incorporating Same

ABSTRACT

A mixed ionic-electronic conductor (MIEC) in contact with a solid electrolyte includes a material having a bandgap less than 3 eV. The material includes an end-member phase directly connected to an alkali metal by a tie-line in an equilibrium phase diagram. The material is thermodynamically stable with a solid electrolyte. The MIEC includes plurality of open pores, formed within the MIEC, to facilitate motion of the alkali metal to at least one of store the alkali metal in the plurality of open pores or release the alkali metal from the plurality of open pores. The solid electrolyte has an ionic conductivity to ions of the alkali metal greater than 1 mS cm−1, a thickness less than 100 μm, and comprises at least one of a ceramic or a polymer.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENT APPLICATION(S)

This application is a continuation-in-part application of U.S. nonprovisional application Ser. No. 16/499,656, filed on Sep. 30, 2019, entitled “METHODS AND APPARATUS TO FACILITATE ALKALI METAL TRANSPORT DURING BATTERY CYCLING, AND BATTERIES INCORPORATING SAME,” which in turn claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/734,564, filed on Sep. 21, 2018, entitled “RAIL-GUIDED Li METAL PLATING/STRIPPING FOR SOLID-STATE Li BATTERIES.” Each of the aforementioned applications is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

GOVERNMENT SUPPORT STATEMENT

This invention was made with Government support under Grant No: DE-SC0002633 awarded by Department of Energy (DOE) and Grant No. ECCS-1610806 awarded by the National Science Foundation (NSF). The Government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

An all-solid-state battery (also referred to herein as “a solid-state battery”) includes a solid anode, a solid cathode, and a solid electrolyte disposed between the anode and the cathode. Compared to a conventional battery that uses a liquid electrolyte, a solid-state battery may achieve a higher energy density due, in part, to the solid electrolyte occupying a smaller volume, thus enabling the battery to be packaged more compactly. The energy density of the solid-state battery may be further enhanced by using a pure alkali metal anode. For example, the theoretical gravimetric capacity of pure lithium (Li) is 3861 mAh/g, which is ten times larger than the theoretical gravimetric capacity of conventional graphite anodes at 372 mAh/g. Although the density of Li (0.534 g/cm³) is lower than graphite (1.6 g/cm³), the volumetric capacity of Li (3861 mAh/g×0.534 g/cm³=2062 mAh/cm³) is still three times larger than graphite (372 mAh/g×1.6 g/cm³=600 mAh/cm³). Furthermore, the solid-state battery may be safer and more durable than a conventional battery because (1) the solid electrolyte may be formed from materials that are less flammable and less toxic than conventional liquid electrolytes and (2) the solid electrolyte does not leak unlike a liquid electrolyte.

SUMMARY

Disclosed herein is a mixed ionic-electronic conductor (MIEC). Embodiments of the MIEC include a material having a bandgap less than 3 eV. The material includes an end-member phase directly connected to an alkali metal by a tie-line in an equilibrium phase diagram. The material is thermodynamically stable with a solid electrolyte. The MIEC includes a plurality of open pores, formed within the MIEC, to facilitate motion of the alkali metal to at least one of store the alkali metal in the plurality of open pores or release the alkali metal from the plurality of open pores. The solid electrolyte is ionically conductive to ions of the alkali metal. The solid electrolyte has an ionic conductivity to ions of the alkali metal greater than 1 mS cm⁻¹, a thickness less than 100 μm, and includes at least one of a ceramic or a polymer. In one embodiment, the material may exclude any lanthanides and/or any rare earth metals.

In an embodiment, the solid electrolyte includes the polymer. The polymer may include at least one of a polyethylene, a polypropylene, a polyethylene oxide, a polyacetal, a polyolefin, a poly(alkylene oxide), a polymethacrylate, a polycarbonate, a polystyrene, a polyester, a polyamide, a polyimide, a polyamideimide, a polyarylate, a polyarylsulfone, a polyethersulfone, a polyphenylene sulfide, a polyvinyl chloride, a polysulfone, a polyimide, a polyetherimide, a polytetrafluoroethylene, a polyetherketone, a polyether etherketone, a polyether ketone, a polybenzoxazole, a polyphthalide, a polyanhydride, a polyvinyl ether, a polyvinyl thioether, a polyvinyl alcohol, a polyvinyl ketone, a polyvinyl halide, a polyvinyl nitrile, a polyvinyl ester, a polysulfonate, a polysulfide, a polythioester, a polysulfone, a polysulfonamide, a polyurea, a polyphosphazene, a polysilazane, a polyethylene terephthalate, a polybutylene terephthalate, a polyurethane, an ethylene propylene diene rubber, a polytetrafluoroethylene, a fluorinated ethylene propylene, a perfluoroalkoxyethylene, a polychlorotrifluoroethylene, or a polyvinylidene fluoride.

In another embodiment, the solid electrolyte includes the ceramic. The ceramic may include at least one of Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂; Li₃OX wherein X is at least one of Cl, Br, or I; Li₃SX wherein X is at least one of Cl, Br, or I; Li_(1.3)Al_(0.3)Ti_(1.7)(PO₄)₃; Li₆PS₅Cl; Li₁₀MP₂S₁₂ wherein M is at least one of Ge, Si, or Sn; Li₃PS₄: Li₇P₃Sn; Li₃N; Li₂S; LiBH₄: Li₃BO₃; Li₂S—P₂S₅; Li₂S—P₂S₅-L₄SiO₄; Li₂S—Ga₂S₃—GeS₂; Li₂S—Sb₂S₃—GeS₂; Li_(3.25)—Ge_(0.25)—P_(0.75)S₄; (La_(1−x)Li_(x))TiO₃ wherein 0<x<1; Li₆La₂CaTa₂O₁₂; Li₆La₂ANb₂O₁₂ wherein A is at least one of Ca, Sr, or Ba; Li₆La₃Zr_(1.5)WO₁₂; Li_(6.5)La₃Zr_(1.5)TaO₁₂; Li_(6.625)Al_(0.25)La₃Zr₂O₁₂; Li₃BO_(2.5)N_(0.5); Li₉SiAlO₈; Li_(1+x)Al_(x)Ge_(2−x)(PO₄)₃; Li_(1+x)Al_(x)Ti_(2−x)(PO₄)₃; Li_(1+x)Ti_(2−x)Al_(x)Si_(y)(PO₄)_(3−y) wherein 0<x<1 and 0≤y<1; LiAl_(x)Zr_(2−x)(PO₄)₃; LiTi_(x)Zr_(2−x)(PO₄)₃ wherein 0<x<2; Li₆PS₅X, wherein X is at least one of Cl, Br, or I; Li₂In_(x)Sc_(0.666−x)Cl₄ wherein 0≤x≤0.666; or Li_(3−x)E_(1−x)Zr_(x)Cl₆ wherein E is at least one of Y or Er.

In another embodiment, the solid electrolyte may include at least one of a polyether solid electrolyte, a thiophosphate solid electrolyte, or a garnet-type solid electrolyte. The solid electrolyte may include the polyether solid electrolyte, which may include polyethylene oxide (PEO). The solid electrolyte may include the thiophosphate solid electrolyte, which may include Li₁₀GeP₂S₁₂ (LGPS) or Li₆PS₅X, wherein X is at least one of Cl, Br, or. The solid electrolyte may include the garnet-type solid electrolyte, which may include Li₇La₃Zr₂O (LLZO).

Another embodiment of the present technology includes an anode. The anode includes the MIEC described above, where the MIEC does not reversibly store and release the alkali metal. The anode's MIEC may have a thickness of about 0.5 μm to about 67 μm. The MIEC may have a porosity greater than 45%. The anode may have an areal capacity of about 6±0.5 mAh cm⁻². The anode may include the alkali metal. Another embodiment of the present technology includes a battery. The battery includes the anode described above and the solid electrolyte described above.

Another embodiment of the present technology includes an anode including a MIEC. The MIEC includes at least one of A_(x)B_(y), A_(x)B_(y)C, or A_(x)B_(y)C_(z)D_(w) and a plurality of open pores, formed within the MIEC, to facilitate motion of an alkali metal to at least one of store the alkali metal in the plurality of open pores or release the alkali metal from the plurality of open pores. The MIEC does not reversibly store and release the alkali metal. The at least one of A_(x)B_(y), A_(x)B_(y)C_(z), or A_(x)B_(y)C_(z)D_(w) includes an end-member phase directly connected to an alkali metal by a tie-line in an equilibrium phase diagram. A is an alkali metal. At least one of B or C is at least one of an alkaline earth metal, a group 13 element, Sc, Y, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg, C, N, Si, Sn, Pb, Bi, La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Ho, Er, or Yb. X, y, z, and w each have a value of about 1 to about 149.

Both B and C may be at least one of an alkaline earth metal, a group 13 element, Sc, Y, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg, C, N, Si, Sn, Pb, Bi, La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Ho, Er, or Yb. B may be an alkaline earth metal. B may be a group 13 element. B may be a period 4 transition metal. B may be a period 5 transition metal. B may be a period 6 transition metal. B may be a lanthanide.

Another embodiment of the present technology includes an anode. The anode includes the MIEC described above, and a plurality of open pores, formed within the MIEC, to facilitate motion of an alkali metal to store the alkali metal in the plurality of open pores and/or release the alkali metal from the plurality of open pores. The MIEC does not reversibly store and/or release the alkali metal. The alkali metal may include at least one of lithium (Li), sodium (Na), or potassium (K).

Another embodiment of the present technology includes an anode. The anode MIEC including Ti_(w)Al_(x)C_(y)Ni_(z) and a plurality of open pores, formed within the MIEC, to facilitate motion of an alkali metal to store the alkali metal in the plurality of open pores and/or release the alkali metal from the plurality of open pores. W, x, y, and z each have a value less than or equal to 8.

Another embodiment of the present technology includes a battery including the anode described above and a solid electrolyte. The solid electrolyte is coupled to a portion of the MIEC. The solid electrolyte includes polyethylene oxide (PEO).

It should be appreciated that all combinations of the foregoing concepts and additional concepts discussed in greater detail below (provided such concepts are not mutually inconsistent) are contemplated as being part of the inventive subject matter disclosed herein. In particular, all combinations of claimed subject matter appearing at the end of this disclosure are contemplated as being part of the inventive subject matter disclosed herein. It should also be appreciated that terminology explicitly employed herein that also may appear in any disclosure incorporated by reference should be accorded a meaning most consistent with the particular concepts disclosed herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The skilled artisan will understand that the drawings primarily are for illustrative purposes and are not intended to limit the scope of the inventive subject matter described herein. The drawings are not necessarily to scale; in some instances, various aspects of the inventive subject matter disclosed herein may be shown exaggerated or enlarged in the drawings to facilitate an understanding of different features. In the drawings, like reference characters generally refer to like features (e.g., functionally similar and/or structurally similar elements).

FIG. 1 shows a cross-sectional view of an exemplary battery with an anode formed, in part, using a mixed ionic-electronic conductor (MIEC) shaped as a honeycomb structure.

FIG. 2 shows a tubule formed by the MIEC of FIG. 1 plated with Li.

FIG. 3 shows another exemplary anode coupled to a composite solid electrolyte.

FIG. 4A shows an exemplary process where Li is deposited and/or stripped in a hollow tubule formed by the MIEC.

FIG. 4B shows an exemplary process where Li is deposited and/or stripped in a tubule formed by the MIEC with a three-dimensional (3D) structure inside the tubule.

FIG. 4C shows an exemplary process where Li diffuses through a coherent and incoherent boundary.

FIG. 4D shows the transport of Li across a smooth and a rough surface.

FIG. 5A shows Li being stripped in a tubule by a combination of dislocation motion and an interfacial diffusion mechanism.

FIG. 5B shows Li being stripped in a tubule by only the interfacial diffusion mechanism of FIG. 5A.

FIG. 6A shows a diagram of an exemplary MIEC formed from an array of carbon hollow tubules (CHT) arranged as a honeycomb structure.

FIG. 6B shows the volumetric capacity of the MIEC of FIG. 6A based on the weight of Li and the CHT as a function of porosity.

FIG. 6C shows the gravimetric capacity of the MIEC of FIG. 6A based on the weight of Li and the CHT as a function of porosity.

FIG. 7A shows an exemplary equilibrium phase diagram between Li, silicon (Si), and aluminum (Al).

FIG. 7B shows an exemplary equilibrium phase diagram between Li, titanium (Ti), and nitrogen (N₂).

FIG. 7C shows an exemplary equilibrium phase diagram between Li, Si, and nickel (Ni).

FIG. 8 shows a schematic of an experiment to characterize the deposition and/or stripping of Li in one or more tubules using a transmission electron microscope (TEM).

FIG. 9A shows a TEM image of an exemplary single CHT in contact with a solid electrolyte (SE). The scale bar is 1 μm.

FIG. 9B shows a magnified TEM image of the single CHT and SE of FIG. 9A. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 9C shows a TEM image of an exemplary single CHT. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 9D shows a magnified TEM image of the single CHT of FIG. 9C. The scale bar is 20 nm.

FIG. 10 shows a series of TEM images of Li being plated within a single CHT. The Li crystal is shown in dark gray and the Li front is marked by the arrow. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 11 shows a series of TEM images of Li being stripped within a single CHT. The Li crystal is shown in dark gray and the Li front is marked by the arrow. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 12A shows a selected area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern of an exemplary CHT with no Li, which is indicated by an amorphous ring. The scale bar is 5 nm⁻¹.

FIG. 12B shows a SAED pattern of an exemplary CHT plated with Li, which is indicated by the stable (110) and (110) reflections perpendicular and parallel to the CHT axis, respectively.

The diffraction spots located on the red dashed circle correspond to the lattice spacing for (110) BCC Li planes of 0.248 nm. The scale bar is 5 nm⁻¹.

FIG. 13 shows SAED patterns of an exemplary CHT obtained after Li plating, which are used to determine the crystal phase of the Li. The diffraction patterns were recorded with a camera length of 100 cm. The scale bars are 5 nm¹.

FIG. 14A shows a high resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM) image of a Li crystal forming with (110) crystal planes inside a CHT. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 14B shows a magnified HRTEM image of the CHT of FIG. 14A before Li deposition.

The scale bar is 2 nm.

FIG. 14C shows a magnified HRTEM image of the CHT of FIG. 14A after Li deposition.

The scale bar is 2 nm.

FIG. 15A shows electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) spectra of the Li K-edge measured after Li deposition inside a CHT.

FIG. 15B shows a reference EELS spectra of the Li K-edge for a Li metal dendrite measured at cryogenic conditions. [Li, Y. et al., Science 358, 506-510 (2017)]

FIG. 16A shows a reference EELS spectra of the Li K-edge for Li₂O (red) and LiOH (black). The Li K-edge peaks for Li₂O and LiOH rise at about 58.2 eV, 62.7 eV and 75 eV. [Zheng, H. et al., Sci. Rep. 2, 542 (2012)].

FIG. 16B shows a reference EELS spectra of the Li K-edge for Li₂O₂ and Li₂CO₃. [Basak, S. et al., Ultramicroscopy 188, 52-58 (2018)]

FIG. 17A shows a TEM image of a single long CHT. The scale bar is 2 μm.

FIG. 17B shows a magnified TEM image of section (A) of the CHT of FIG. 17A. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 17C shows a magnified TEM image of section (B) of the CHT of FIG. 17A. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 17D shows a series of TEM images where section (A) of the CHT of FIG. 17A is plated with Li.

FIG. 17E shows a series of TEM images where section (B) of the CHT of FIG. 17A is stripped of Li.

FIG. 18A shows a TEM image of an exemplary CHT having a local 3D porous structure disposed inside the cavity of the CHT before Li plating. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 18B shows a TEM image of the CHT of FIG. 18A after Li plating. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIGS. 18C-18F show a series of TEM images of a local 3D porous structure in a CHT being plated with Li. The scale bars are 50 nm.

FIG. 19 shows a series of TEM images of an exemplary CHT where Li is being stripped. A void space is present between the Li metal and the solid electrolyte. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 20A shows a series of TEM images of two aligned CHT's being plated with Li. The respective fronts of Li metal in each CHT is indicated by the white arrow. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 20B shows a series of TEM images of the two aligned CHT's of FIG. 20A being stripped of Li. The respective fronts of Li metal in each CHT is indicated by the white arrow. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 20C shows EELS spectra acquired at the cross in FIG. 20A before and after Li plating.

FIG. 20D shows EELS spectra of the Li K-edge with fine structure after Li plating and background subtraction.

FIG. 21A shows a TEM image of three aligned CHT's before Li plating. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 21B shows a TEM image of three aligned CHT's after Li plating. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 22A shows a series of TEM images of an exemplary CHT being plated with Li. The CHT has an inner diameter of about 200 nm and a wall thickness of 50 nm. The scale bars are 100 nm.

FIG. 22B shows a series of TEM images of the CHT of FIG. 22A being stripped of Li. The scale bars are 100 nm.

FIG. 23A shows a series of TEM images of an exemplary CHT being plated with Li. The CHT has an inner diameter of about 100 nm and a wall thickness of 60 nm. The scale bars are 100 nm.

FIG. 23B shows a series of TEM images of the CHT of FIG. 23A being stripped of Li. The scale bars are 100 nm.

FIG. 24 shows a series of TEM images of an exemplary carbon nanotube being plated with Li. The carbon nanotube has an inner diameter of about 30 nm and a wall thickness of 50 nm. The scale bar is 50 nm.

FIG. 25 shows a series of TEM images of an exemplary carbon nanotube being plated with Li. The carbon nanotube has an inner diameter of about 60 nm and a wall thickness of about 60 nm. The scale bar is 50 nm.

FIG. 26A shows a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of several exemplary CHT's. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 26B shows an electron-dispersive x-ray (EDX) map of carbon (C) of the CHT's of FIG. 26A. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 26C shows an EDX map of oxygen (O) of the CHT's of FIG. 26A. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 26D shows an EDX map of zinc (Zn) of the CHT's of FIG. 26A. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 27A shows x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra of the CIs line acquired using the CHT's of FIG. 27A.

FIG. 27B shows XPS spectra of the Zn2p_(3/2) line acquired using the CHT's of FIG. 27A.

FIG. 27C shows XPS spectra of the O1s line acquired using the CHT's of FIG. 27A.

FIG. 28A shows EDX spectra of the CHT's of FIG. 26A before acid treatment.

FIG. 28B shows EDX spectra of the CHT's of FIG. 26A after acid treatment.

FIG. 29 shows a table of the ratio of Zn and O in the CHT's of FIG. 26A before and after acid treatment.

FIG. 30A shows a dark-field TEM image of Li wetting the outer surface of an exemplary CHT. This image shows Li is plated inside the CHT before being extruded out of the CHT with additional deposition. The dark-field image was acquired when the (1 10) diffraction beam of the Li crystal (see inset) is allowed to pass through the objective aperture. The dashed circle denotes the selected area aperture. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 30B shows a dark-field TEM image of the CHT of FIG. 30A where Li begins to wet the outer surface of the CHT. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 30C shows a dark-field TEM image of the CHT of FIG. 30A where Li wets the outer surface of the CHT along a length of 100 nm. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 30D shows a dark-field TEM image of the CHT of FIG. 30A where Li wets the outer surface of the CHT along a length of 140 nm. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 30E shows a dark-field TEM image of the CHT of FIG. 30A where Li begins to grow outward from the outer surface of the CHT. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 31 shows a TEM image of the outer surface of an exemplary CHT before Li plating.

The scale bar is 2 nm.

FIGS. 32A-32C show a series of TEM images of Li₂O being grown out of a carbon tubule surface. The scale bar is 2 nm.

FIG. 32D shows a HRTEM image of the Li₂O layer growing out of the CHT surface.

FIG. 33 shows a HRTEM image of a layer of Li₂O on outer surface of CHT. The scale bar is 2 nm.

FIG. 34A shows a TEM image of a Li whisker grown from a single CHT. ZnO_(x) is disposed inside the CHT within the selected area aperture. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 34B shows a SAED pattern showing the side edges of the Li whisker in {110} planes.

FIG. 34C shows a HRTEM image of the Li₂O on the Li whisker. The Li₂O is measured with a lattice spacing of 0.27 nm between the Li₂O (111) planes on the side edge of the whisker corresponding to the interface of Kurdjumov-Sachs {110}BCC Li//{111}FCC Li₂O orientation relationship indicated by the inset of FIG. 34B. The scale bar is 2 nm.

FIG. 35A shows a HRTEM image of in situ lateral growth of Li₂O on the outer layer of one thick flake of Li. The {111} planes are shown to be parallel to the outer surface and the advancement of {111} planes are marked between red dashed lines. The scale bar is 2 nm.

FIG. 35B shows a HRTEM image of the outer layer of one thick flake of Li of FIG. 35A taken at a later time. The {111} planes are shown to be parallel to the outer surface and the advancement of {111} planes are marked between red dashed lines. The scale bar is 2 nm

FIG. 35C shows EELS spectra of the Li K-edge on the outer layer of Li₂O. A shoulder features is observed indicating the presence of Li₂O.

FIG. 36A shows an exemplary first charging profile of a CHT.

FIG. 36B shows an exemplary plating/stripping profile of a CHT.

FIGS. 37A-37K each show a series of TEM images of Li being plated and stripped along a single exemplary CHT for a single cycle (from a 1^(st) cycle to a 100^(th) cycle). The scale bars in each image are 100 nm.

FIG. 38A shows a series of TEM images of a single exemplary CHT being plated with sodium (Na). The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 38B shows a series of TEM images of the single CHT of FIG. 38A being stripped of Na. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 38C shows a SAED pattern of the Na-plated single CHT of FIG. 38B showing that the Na is a single crystal.

FIG. 39A shows a field-emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) image of an exemplary carbonaceous MIEC beehive (also referred to herein as a “honeycomb”). The scale bar is 1 μm.

FIG. 39B shows a magnified FESEM image of the respective ends of the MIEC beehive of FIG. 39A. The scale bar is 200 nm.

FIG. 39C shows a magnified FESEM image of the respective sides of the MIEC beehive of FIG. 39A. The scale bar is 500 nm.

FIG. 40 shows a TEM image of the MIEC beehive of FIG. 39A. The scale bar is 200 nm.

FIG. 41A shows a FESEM image of an exemplary ZnO-coated carbonaceous beehive. The scale bar is 2 μm.

FIG. 41B shows an EDX map of C in the ZnO-coated carbonaceous beehive of FIG. 41A. The scale bar is 2 μm.

FIG. 41C shows an EDX map of O in the ZnO-coated carbonaceous beehive of FIG. 41A. The scale bar is 2 μm.

FIG. 41D shows an EDX map of Zn in the ZnO-coated carbonaceous beehive of FIG. 41A. The scale bar is 2 μm.

FIG. 42 shows an exemplary load-displacement curve of the MIEC beehive measured based on nanoindentation tests.

FIG. 43 shows a FESEM image of an exemplary carbonaceous beehive covered with a layer of LiPON. The scale bar is 200 nm.

FIG. 44A shows a top view of an exemplary carbonaceous MIEC beehive.

FIG. 44B shows an image of an exemplary P(EO/EM/AGE)/LiTFSI solid electrolyte film.

FIG. 44C shows a bottom view of the MIEC beehive of FIG. 44A. The platinum (Pt) layer is shown.

FIG. 44D shows a FESEM image of the MIEC beehive of FIG. 44A. As shown, the aligned carbon tubes are bonded to the Pt layer. The scale bar is 500 nm.

FIG. 45A shows a schematic of an exemplary half-cell using a MIEC beehive to evaluate electrochemical performance.

FIG. 45B shows an exemplary charge/discharge profile for Li plating of a half-cell.

FIG. 45C shows an exemplary charge/discharge profile for Li stripping of a half-cell.

FIG. 45D shows the overpotential and CE of the half-cell at various current densities.

FIG. 45E shows the charge/discharge voltage profile of the Li/SE/MIEC beehive half-cell as a function of time.

FIG. 45F shows a comparison of the current density and areal capacity of the anode in the present disclosure and previous anodes used in all-solid-state batteries. The pink symbol represents a half-cell with a 3D MIEC beehive on the Pt layer as a Li host. The green symbol represents a half-cell with a carbon-coated Cu foil as a Li host.

FIG. 46 shows an image of an exemplary LiFePO₄ cathode.

FIG. 47A shows the charge/discharge profile at 0.1 C of an exemplary full-cell all-solid-state battery with the MIEC beehive. The battery is a 1× excess Li-pre-deposited MIEC/SE/LiFePO₄ battery.

FIG. 47B shows the capacity and Coulombic efficiency (CE) as a function of the number of cycles for the all-solid-state battery of FIG. 47A. The blue line is the CE of the all-solid-state battery with the 3D MIEC beehive.

FIG. 48A shows a FESEM image of the open pore structure of the MIEC before Li plating. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 48B shows a FESEM image of the open pore structure of the MIEC after Li plating. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 49A shows a schematic of an exemplary titanium nitride (TiN) MIEC beehive fabrication process.

FIG. 49B shows a FESEM image of an exemplary TiN MIEC with a beehive open-pore structure formed from TiN nanotubes. The scale bar is 500 nm.

FIG. 49C shows a magnified FESEM image of the sides of the MIEC beehive of FIG. 49B. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 49D shows a FESEM image of the ends of the MIEC beehive of FIG. 49B.

The scale bar is 500 nm.

FIG. 49E shows a magnified FESEM image of the ends of the MIEC beehive of FIG. 49D. The scale bar is 100 nm.

FIG. 50A shows a load-displacement curve of an exemplary TiN MIEC measured using a nanoindentation test.

FIG. 50B shows an exemplary charge/discharge profile for Li plating/stripping in a TiN MIEC half-cell. The pink line is for a TiN MIEC beehive on as a Li host.

FIG. 50C shows the overpotential and CE of the TiN MIEC half-cell at various current densities. The pink line is for a TiN MIEC beehive on as a Li host.

FIG. 50D shows the charge/discharge voltage profile of the Li/SE/TiN MIEC beehive half-cell as a function of time. The pink line is for a TiN MIEC beehive on as a Li host

FIG. 51A shows an exemplary charge/discharge profile for Li plating/stripping in a TiN MIEC full-cell battery.

FIG. 51B shows the capacity and Coulombic efficiency (CE) as a function of the number of cycles for the TiN MIEC full-cell battery of FIG. 51A. The blue line is the CE of the TiN MIEC full-cell battery.

FIG. 52A shows an image of an exemplary MIEC formed using an anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) template.

FIG. 52B shows a SEM image of the ends of the AAO MIEC of FIG. 52A.

FIG. 52C shows a SEM image of the sides of the AAO MIEC of FIG. 52A.

FIG. 53A shows an image of an exemplary MIEC formed using a silicon mesh.

FIG. 53B shows a SEM image of the ends of the Si MIEC of FIG. 53A.

FIG. 53C shows a magnified SEM image of the ends of the SI MIEC of FIG. 53B.

FIG. 53D shows a SEM image of the sides of the Si MIEC of FIG. 53A.

FIG. 54 shows an equilibrium phase diagram between TiFe and Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂.

FIG. 55 shows an equilibrium phase diagram between Li and Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂.

FIG. 56 shows the relationship between anode thickness and porosity for MIECs with different areal capacities.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Following below are more detailed descriptions of various concepts related to, and implementations of, an anode that includes a mixed ionic-electronic conductor (MIEC) forming an open pore structure to facilitate the transport of an alkali metal during charging or discharging of a battery. It should be appreciated that various concepts introduced above and discussed in greater detail below may be implemented in multiple ways. Examples of specific implementations and applications are provided primarily for illustrative purposes so as to enable those skilled in the art to practice the implementations and alternatives apparent to those skilled in the art.

The figures and example implementations described below are not meant to limit the scope of the present implementations to a single embodiment. Other implementations are possible by way of interchange of some or all of the described or illustrated elements. Moreover, where certain elements of the disclosed example implementations may be partially or fully implemented using known components, in some instances only those portions of such known components that are necessary for an understanding of the present implementations are described, and detailed descriptions of other portions of such known components are omitted so as not to obscure the present implementations.

In the discussion below, various examples of a MIEC, a solid electrolyte, an anode formed from the MIEC, an open pore structure, and a battery formed from the anode and the solid electrolyte. It should be appreciated that one or more features discussed in connection with a given example may be employed in other examples according to the present disclosure, such that the various features disclosed herein may be readily combined in a given system according to the present disclosure (provided that respective features are not mutually inconsistent).

An Exemplary Anode with a Mixed Ionic-Electronic Conductor (MIEC)

FIG. 1 shows an exemplary battery 1000 that comprises an anode 1100 and a solid electrolyte 1400. The anode 1100 may include a mixed ionic-electronic conductor (MIEC) 1110 that forms an open pore structure 1120. When the battery 1000 is being charged and/or discharged, an alkali metal 1300 may be transported into and/or out of the open pore structure 1120. Said in another way, the MIEC 1110 functions as a host for the alkali metal 1300 by storing and/or releasing the alkali metal 1300 via the open pore structure 1120. The open pore structure 1120 formed by the MIEC 1110 may have pores that extend across the MIEC 1110 between a first end 1112 and a second end 1114. The anode 1100 may include a current collector 1140 disposed on the first end 1112 of the MIEC 1110. The solid electrolyte 1400 may be disposed on the second end 1114 of the MIEC 1110.

The MIEC 1110 may be electrically conducting and ionically conducting with respect to an alkali metal ion 1310 in order to facilitate a reduction and/or oxidation reaction of the alkali metal 1300 during a charge or discharge process, respectively. For example, when the battery 1000 is being charged, alkali metal ions 1310 will be transported from a cathode (not shown), across the solid electrolyte 1400, and into the anode 1100 through the second opening 1114 of the MIEC 1110. A power source (not shown), such as a voltage source, may supply electrons 1320 to the anode 1100 through the current collector 1140. The electrons 1320 and the alkali metal ions 1310 may be transported by the MIEC 1110, resulting in the reduction of the alkali metal ion 1310 to a neutral alkali metal 1300, which is then stored within the open pore structure 1120. As the battery 1000 is charged, the amount of alkali metal 1300 in the open pore structure 1120 may increase, thus occupying a larger portion of the open pore structure 1120. In some implementations, the alkali metal 1300 may have a front (e.g., a surface on the alkali metal 1300 that interfaces the inert gas in the open pore structure 1120) that progressively moves within the open pore structure 1120 as the alkali metal 1300 backfills the open pore structure 1120.

When the battery 1000 is being discharged, the alkali metal 1300 undergoes an oxidation reaction that results in the generation of an electron 1320 and an alkali metal ion 1310. The electrons 1320 are transported out of the MIEC 1110 through the current collector 1140. The tendency for electrons 1320 to preferentially flow towards the current collector 1140 is based, in part, on the solid electrolyte 1400 being electrically insulating. The alkali metal ions 1310 are transported out of the MIEC 1110 towards the cathode and solid electrolyte 1400 through the second opening 1114. As alkali metal ions are transported from the anode 1100 to the cathode, the amount of alkali metal 1300 stored within the open pore structure 1120 may decrease, resulting in a retraction of the front of the alkali metal 1300.

The reserved pore space in the open pore structure 1120 may help relieve the stresses generated by the alkali metal 1300 (hydrostatic and deviatoric) by allowing the alkali metal 1300 to backfill. In this manner, the likelihood of fracturing the anode 1100 when cycling the battery 1000 may be substantially reduced while maintaining electronic and ionic contact. In some implementations, the transport of alkali metal 1300 may also be aided by alkaliphilic capillary wetting of the open pore structure 1120.

As described above, the open pore structure 1120 may be used to transport the alkali metal 1300 into and/or out of the MIEC 1110 for storage when charging the battery 1000 and/or release when discharging the battery 1000. The shape and dimensions of the open pore structure 1120 formed by the MIEC 1110 may thus affect the capacity and the charge/discharge rate of the battery 1000.

Generally, the open pore structure 1120 may include a plurality of pores that form percolation pathways extending across the MIEC 1110. The pores and/or percolation pathways may be separated by a portion of the MIEC 1110 (e.g., a wall). The plurality of pores may be substantially open to allow the alkali metal 1300 to enter and/or leave the MIEC 1110 through the solid electrolyte 1400 when cycling the battery 1000. In some implementations, the percolation pathways may intersect with one another. For example, two or more percolation pathways may merge into a single pathway and/or one percolation pathway may split into two or more percolation pathways. More generally, the tortuosity of the open pore structure may be small (e.g., about 1 corresponding to highly aligned percolation pathways) or large (e.g., greater than 1 corresponding to highly twisted percolation pathways).

The open pore structure 1120 may be a substantially isotropic structure where the orientation of the percolation pathways is distributed uniformly about a 4π solid angle space. For instance, the open pore structure 1120 may be a foam-like structure comprising a plurality of spherical cavities joined together to form the percolation pathways through which the alkali metal 1300 is deposited/stripped.

The open pore structure 1120 may be a substantially aligned array of cylindrical cavities that extend from a first end 1112 of the MIEC 1110 to a second end 1114 of the MIEC 1110. In some implementations, the first end 1112 and the second end 1114 may be disposed on opposite sides of the MIEC 1110, hence, the array of cylindrical cavities may be substantially straight. In some implementations, the first end 1112 and the second end 1114 may be disposed on sides of the MIEC 1110 that are not parallel. Thus, the array of cylindrical cavities may be uniformly curved or bent such that the respective ends of the cylindrical cavities terminate at the first end 1112 and the second end 1114. In this manner, the MIEC 1110 and/or the open pore structure 1120 may be shaped to conform to the form factor of the battery 1000 (e.g., a flat planar cell or a cylindrical cell).

FIG. 1 shows an exemplary open pore structure 1120 shaped as an array of aligned tubules 1210 within the MIEC 1110. The array of tubules 1210 may be arranged in various forms including, but not limited to a grid and a honeycomb structure. As shown, each tubule 1210 is separated from a neighboring tubule 1210 by a wall 1200 of the MIEC 1110. Each tubule 1210 may have a cross-sectional width Wand each wall 1200 may have a thickness w. The height, h, of the open pore structure 1120 may extend across the entirety of the MIEC 1110. In some implementations, the width, W, of the tubule 1210 may be less than about 300 nm. In some implementations, the thickness of the wall 1200, w, may be between about 1 nm to about 30 nm. In some implementations, the height, h, of the tubules 1210 may be at least about 10 μm.

The MIEC 1110 may be fabricated using various approaches including, but not limited to a growth process (e.g., the open pore structure 1120 is formed during the growth of the MIEC 1110 from a substrate) and/or an etching process (e.g., the MIEC 1110 is deposited onto a substrate as a homogenous medium and the open pore structure 1120 is then formed by etching into the MIEC 1110). For example, the aligned tubules 1210 shown in FIG. 1 may be formed by growing the tubules 1210 from a substrate with a sufficient packing density such that the average separation distance between tubules is less than about 300 nm. In another example, the aligned tubules 1210 may be formed by etching a substrate in an anisotropic manner (e.g., deep reactive-ion etching) to form an array of highly aligned, large aspect ratio cavities (e.g., aligned cylindrical cavities).

In some implementations, the battery 1000 may be cycled by applying alternating negative and positive overpotentials. This may cause the alkali metal 1300 to move into and/or out of the open pore structure 1120 in a similar manner to a mechanical pump, resulting in a cyclical load applied to the MIEC 1110 that may cause fatigue. The MIEC 1110 and the open pore structure 1120 should thus be designed to have walls 1200 with a sufficiently large mechanical strength and ductility to accommodate the stresses generated by P_(LiMetal) and capillarity thereby reducing the risk of fracture and/or fatigue in the MIEC 1110.

Generally, the pores of the open pore structure 1120 may vary in size and shape. However, in some implementations, it may be preferable for the pores (e.g., the tubules 1210) to be substantially uniform in terms of size, shape, and/or alkaliphilicity to reduce the formation of dead lithium and/or provide spatially uniform transport of the alkali metal 1300.

Prior to the alkali metal 1300 infiltrating the open pore structure 1120, the open spaces of the open pore structure 1120 may be evacuated and/or contain an inert gas phase. For ease of manufacture, it may be preferable for the open pore structure 1120 to initially contain a gas phase at P_(gas)=1 atm (10⁵ Pa). The solid electrolyte 1400 should preferably form a hermetic seal on the second end 1114 of the MIEC 1110, otherwise the alkali metal 1300 may readily plate or flow through the solid electrolyte 1400 causing an electrical short with the cathode. The current collector 1140 should also preferably form a hermetic seal on the first end 1112 of the MIEC 1110. As a result, the deposition of the alkali metal 1300 in the open pore structure 1120 may compress the inert gas phase, resulting in a local P_(gas) that increases as more alkali metal 1300 is deposited. The rise in P_(gas) may be proportional to the compression ratio of the gas (e.g., P_(gas) may be about 10 atm for a compression ratio of about 10×).

The rise in P_(gas) generally does not affect the transport of the alkali metal 1300. For example, the pressure generated by Li, P_(LiMetal), may be about 10² MPa according to the Nernst equation, which is substantially larger than P_(gas). In other words, the alkali metal 1300 may readily act as a piston to compress the gas. However, heterogeneities within the open pore structure 1120 may cause the alkali metal 1300 to be deposited non-uniformly. The non-uniform plating of the alkali metal 1300 may give rise to a pressure difference ΔP_(gas) between adjacent tubules 1210, which may bend or, in some instances, burst the wall 1200 of the MIEC 1110. Thus, in some implementations, the wall 1200 of the MIEC 1110 may be designed to be non-hermetic to allow P_(gas) to equilibrate from cell to cell. In this manner, the internal pressure of the MIEC 1110 may be more homogenous, thus reducing the likelihood of one tubule 1210 expanding and collapsing a neighboring tubule 1210.

In some implementations, the height, h, of the open pore structure 1120 and the MIEC 1110 may include a reserved space for the inert gas phase to be compressed without generating exceedingly large P_(gas). For example, FIG. 2 shows an exemplary tubule 1210 that is filled with the alkali metal 1300. A compression ratio of 10× corresponds to at least 90% of the free volume of the open pore structure 1120 being filled with the alkali metal 1300 with the remainder being the compressed gas. As described above, this compression ratio may be readily satisfied due to the large pressures generated by the alkali metal 1300. Although a portion of the open pore structure 1120 should be reserved for the gas phase, the volumetric capacity of the anode 1100 may still be enhanced due to the large volume fraction of alkali metal 1300. In general, the open pore structure 1120 may be shaped such that the alkali metal 1300 plated into the open pore structure 1120 may occupy at least about 30% of the total volume of the MIEC 1110.

The current collector 1140 may be formed from various electrically conductive materials including, but not limited to copper, aluminum, silver, and gold. In some implementations, the current collector 1140 may be a film that is deposited onto the MIEC 1110 or a substrate from which the MIEC 1110 is grown and/or deposited.

The solid electrolyte 1400 may have an ionic conductivity to ions of the alkali metal greater than or equal to 1 mS cm⁻¹ (e.g., 1 mS cm⁻¹, 2 mS cm⁻¹, 5 mS cm⁻¹, or 10 mS cm⁻¹) and a thickness less than or equal to 100 μm (e.g., 1 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 20 μm, 50 μm, 80 μm, or 100 μm).

The solid electrolyte 1400 may be formed from various materials including, but not limited to polymers and/or ceramics. The polymer may include at least one of a polyethylene, a polypropylene, a polyethylene oxide, a polyacetal, a polyolefin, a poly(alkylene oxide), a polymethacrylate, a polycarbonate, a polystyrene, a polyester, a polyamide, a polyimide, a polyamideimide, a polyarylate, a polyarylsulfone, a polyethersulfone, a polyphenylene sulfide, a polyvinyl chloride, a polysulfone, a polyimide, a polyetherimide, a polytetrafluoroethylene, a polyetherketone, a polyether etherketone, a polyether ketone, a polybenzoxazole, a polyphthalide, a polyanhydride, a polyvinyl ether, a polyvinyl thioether, a polyvinyl alcohol, a polyvinyl ketone, a polyvinyl halide, a polyvinyl nitrile, a polyvinyl ester, a polysulfonate, a polysulfide, a polythioester, a polysulfone, a polysulfonamide, a polyurea, a polyphosphazene, a polysilazane, a polyethylene terephthalate, a polybutylene terephthalate, a polyurethane, an ethylene propylene diene rubber, a polytetrafluoroethylene, a fluorinated ethylene propylene, a perfluoroalkoxyethylene, a polychlorotrifluoroethylene, or a polyvinylidene fluoride. Any of the compounds listed above may be the sole component of the solid electrolyte or may be used in combination.

The ceramic may include an antiperovskite structure having the formula Li₃O_(X) and/or Li₃SX₃ wherein X is at least one of Cl, Br, or I, or a super halide such as BH₄ or BF₄. An exemplary antiperovskite is Li₃OCl.

The ceramic may include a phosphate-type solid electrolyte such as a NASICON structure of the general formula Li_(1±x)M1_(x)M_(2−x)(PO₄)₃, wherein M is Al, Ga, In, Sc, Cr, Fe, Ta, or Nb; M2 is Ti, Zr, Hf, Si, or Ge, and wherein the number of moles of lithium per formula unit is 0<x<2, 0.2<1±x<1.8, 0.4>1±x<0.6. For example, the NASICON structure can be LiTi₂(PO₄)₃, Li_(1+x)Al_(x)Ge_(2−x)(PO₄)₃ (LAGP), Li_(1+x)Al_(x)Ti_(2−x)(PO₄)₃ (LATP), Li_(1+x)Ti_(2−x)Al_(x)Si_(y)(PO₄)_(3−y), Li_(1−x)Ti_(2−x)Ta_(x)(PO₄)₃ wherein 0<x<1 and 0≤y<1, LiAl_(x)Zr_(2−x)(PO₄)₃, and/or LiTi_(X)Zr_(2−x)(PO₄)₃ wherein 0<x<2.

The ceramic can also include an oxide-type solid electrolyte such as a perovskite structure having the general formula (La_(1−x)Li_(x))TiO₃ (LLTO)) wherein 0<x<1 The ceramic can also include a sulfide or glassy sulfide such as Li₆PS₅X wherein X is Cl, Br, or I, Li₁₀MP₂S₁₂ wherein M is Ge, Si, or Sn; Li₂S—P₂S₅, Li₂S—P₂S₅-L₄SiO₄, Li₂S—GeS₂, Li₂S—Sb₂S₃—GeS₂, Li_(3.25)—Ge_(0.25)—P_(0.75)S₄, or Li₁PS₄, Li₇P₃S₁₁. The ceramic can also include Li—N, Li₂S, LiBH₄, or Li₃BO₃, optionally including derivatives with dopants on the cation or anion sites. The ceramic can be a garnet-type oxide, e.g., Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂. Optionally, the garnet-type oxide can further include one or more dopants, for example selected from Al, Ge, Ga, W, Ta, Nb, Ca, Y, Fe, or a combination thereof, wherein the dopant, if present, is contained in an amount of greater than 0 to 3 moles per formula unit in the unit formula Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂ on the La-site, and greater than 0 to 2 moles per formula unit on the Zr site. The ceramic may also include a lithium mixed-metal chlorospinel, e.g., Li₂In_(x)Sc_(0.666−x)Cl₄ wherein 0≤x≤0.666; or Li_(3−x)E_(1−x)Zr_(x)Cl₆ wherein E is at least one of Y or Er. Any of the compounds listed above may be the sole component of the solid electrolyte or may be used in combination.

In some embodiments, the deposition metal can be sodium, and the solid electrolyte can include an oxide-type solid electrolyte such as sodium β-Al₂O₃ or NASICON (Na_(1+x)Zr₂Si_(x)P_(3−x)O₁₂, 0<x<3); a sulfide type (e.g., Na₃PS₄); a closo-borate; or a polymer electrolyte such as poly(ethylene oxide) with a dissolved salt such as NaAsF₆.

For example, the solid electrolyte may include Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂; Li_(1.3)Al_(0.3)Ti_(1.7)(PO₄)₃; Li₆PS₅Cl; Li₁₀MP₂S₁₂ wherein M is at least one of Ge, Si, or Sn; Li₃PS₄; Li₇P₃S₁₁; Li₃N; Li₂S; LiBH₄; Li₃BO₃; Li₂S—P₂S₅; Li₂S—P₂S₅-L₄SiO₄; Li₂S—Ga₂S₃—GeS₂; Li₂S—Sb₂S₃—GeS₂; Li_(3.25)—Ge_(0.25)—P_(0.75)S₄; (La_(1−x)Li_(x))TiO₃ wherein 0<x<1; Li₆La₂CaTa₂O₁₂; Li₆La₂ANb₂O₁₂ wherein A is at least one of Ca, Sr, or Ba; Li₆La₃Zr_(1.5)WO₁₂; Li_(6.5)La₃Zr_(1.5)TaO₁₂; Li_(6.625)Al_(0.25)La₃Zr₂O₁₂; Li₃BO_(2.5)N_(0.5); Li₉SiAlO₈; Li_(1+x)Al_(x)Ge_(2−x)(PO₄)₃; Li_(1+x)Al_(x)Ti_(2−x)(PO₄)₃; Li_(1+x)Ti_(2−x)Al_(x)Si_(y)(PO₄)_(3−y) wherein 0<x<1 and 0≤y<1; LiAl_(x)Zr_(2−x)(PO₄)₃; LiTi_(x)Zr_(2−x)(PO₄)₃ wherein 0<x<2; Li₆PS₅X, wherein X is at least one of Cl, Br, or I, or a combination thereof.

As another example, the solid electrolyte may include a polyether, a thiophosphate, and/or a garnet-type material. Examples of polyether solid electrolytes include polyethylene oxide (PEO). Examples of thiophosphate solid electrolytes include Li₁₀GeP₂Si₂ (LGPS), Li₆PS₅X with X being at least one of Cl, Br, or I), and Li₃PS₃ (LPS). Examples of garnet-type solid electrolytes include Li₇La₃Zr₂O (LLZO). The interface between the MIEC 1110 and the solid electrolyte 1400 is where the alkali metal 1300 is typically deposited first (when charging the battery 1000) and, hence, where P_(LiMetal) is initiated. Thus, the way the solid electrolyte 1400 is coupled to the MIEC 1110 may affect the durability of the battery 1000. In some implementations, the tubules 1210 of the MIEC 1110 may be partially inserted and/or planted into the solid electrolyte 1400 as shown in FIG. 1 to provide greater mechanical strength. In some implementations, the portion 1500 of the wall 1200 of the MIEC 1110 inserted into the solid electrolyte 1400 should be an electronic and Li-ion insulator (ELI) to avoid issues related to the mechanical coupling between the MIEC 1110 and the solid electrolyte 1400. Said in another way, the ELI root 1500 should only provide mechanical support to the MIEC 1110. The solid electrolyte 1400 may be formed from a compliant material, such as PEO, to reduce the likelihood of brittle root-fracture caused by the deposition of alkali metal 1300 at the interface between the MIEC 1110 and the solid electrolyte 1400.

In some implementations, the solid electrolyte 1400 may be a composite formed from multiple materials. For example, the solid electrolyte 1400 may include both ceramic and polymer materials, thereby taking advantage of the respective benefits of each of these types of solid electrolytes. As an example, a polymer solid electrolyte may have favorable mechanical properties like a high ductility, but a lower ionic conductivity; and a ceramic solid electrolyte may have less favorable mechanical properties like brittleness, but a higher ionic conductivity. For example, FIG. 3 shows the solid electrolyte may include a ductile polymer solid electrolyte 1400 a, such as PEO, to securely couple to the tubules of the MIEC 1110. The ductile solid electrolyte 1400 a may have a thickness sufficient to blunt small cracks (e.g., between about 100 nm to 500 nm). The solid electrolyte 1400 may also include a brittle ceramic solid electrolyte 1400 b disposed on the ductile solid electrolyte 1400 a. The brittle solid electrolyte may be a more ionically conductive medium, such as LGPS, which is less electrochemically stable against Li, but more Li⁺-conductive.

The charge/discharge rate of the battery 1000 depends, in part, on the manner in which the alkali metal 1300 is transported through the open pore structure 1120. In some implementations, the alkali metal 1300 may be transported as a solid-phase (e.g., a creep mechanism) within the open pore structure 1120. For many applications, it may be preferable to operate the battery 1000 at near room temperature (e.g., between about −20° C. and about 60° C.). At such temperatures, the alkali metal 1300 is typically a solid phase.

For example, the alkali metal 1300 may be Li, which is a soft metal at room temperature with a melting point of T_(M)=180° C. At a temperature of 300 K (e.g., room temperature), the homologous temperature for Li metal is T/T_(M)=0.66. Thus, the alkali metal 1300 may exhibit an appreciable creep strain rate {dot over (ε)}(T,σ) where σ is the deviatoric shear stress. The creep strain rate applied to a solid alkali metal 1300, such as Li at T=300 K, may deform the alkali metal 1300 to such an extent that the alkali metal 1300 may be viewed as behaving like an incompressible work fluid. Said in another way, the creep strain rate may deform the alkali metal 1300 thereby causing the alkali metal 1300 to advance and/or retract within the open pore structure 1120 as if the alkali metal 1300 were a fluid with an effective viscosity of η≡σ/{dot over (ε)}(T,σ). The creep strain rate may be caused by various creep mechanisms including, but not limited to a diffusion mechanism (e.g., an interfacial-diffusion Coble creep mechanism, a bulk-diffusion Nabarro-Herring creep mechanism), a dislocation slip mechanism, and a combination of a diffusion and dislocation mechanism.

A purely diffusional creep mechanism, such as lattice-diffusional Nabarro-Herring creep or interfacial-diffusional Coble creep, may exhibit a strain rate of {dot over (ε)}(T,σ)∂σ. Thus, the viscosity q depends on T and grain size, but not on a. The alkali metal 1300 thus behave like a Newtonian fluid when viewed from a continuum mechanics viewpoint. In contrast, a dislocation creep mechanism, such as power-law creep, may exhibit a viscosity η∂σ^(1-n) with n>1. This implies the alkali metal 1300 behaves like a shear-thinning, non-Newtonian fluid. Both types of mechanisms, however, may be used to transport the alkali metal 1300 within the open pore structure 1120 with the driving force being the chemical potential gradient −Ω∇P_(LiMetal)(x), which is related to the pressure gradient.

Although different transport mechanisms (e.g., dislocation vs. diffusion creep, interfacial Coble creep vs. bulk Nabarro-Herring creep) may be used to transport the alkali metal 1300 in the open pore structure 1120, the transport rate of the alkali metal 1300 may vary between the different mechanisms. In other words, the type of transport mechanism used may influence the overall transport rate of the alkali metal 1300, which in turn affects the current density and charge/discharge rate of the battery 1000. The contribution of different creep mechanisms on the transport rate of the alkali metal 1300 may depend on various factors including, but not limited to the grain size of the alkali metal 1300, the shape of the open pore structure 1120, and the size of the open pore structure 1120 (e.g., a characteristic width along a cross-section of a pore in the open pore structure 1120).

For example, a Coble creep mechanism typically contributes substantially to the transport of alkali metal 1300 when the characteristic width of the pores in the open pore structure 1120 are less than about 300 nm and the homologous temperature of the alkali metal 1300 is about T/T_(M)≈⅔. The creep strain rate due to the Coble creep may be estimated as follows,

$\begin{matrix} {\overset{.}{ɛ} = {K\frac{\delta_{I}D_{I}\Omega}{D^{3}k_{B}T}\sigma}} & (1) \end{matrix}$

where {dot over (ε)} is creep strain rate due to the Coble creep mechanism, K is a dimensionless constant, δ_(I) is the nominal interfacial diffusion layer thickness, D_(I) is the interfacial diffusion diffusivity, Ω is the atomic volume, D is the diameter size, k_(B) is Boltzmann constant, T is temperature, and σ is the yield stress.

As shown in Eq. (1), the yield stress σ∂D³ or σ=kD³ for a fixed creep strain rate. Thus, the stress that arises from Coble diffusional creep, which is applied to the portions of the MIEC 1110 forming the open pore structure 1120 (e.g., the walls of the MIEC 1110) by the alkali metal 1300, decreases as the characteristic width of each pore in the open pore structure 1120 and the alkali metal 1300 contained therein becomes smaller. By using a smaller pore to reduce the mechanical stress applied to the MIEC 1110, mechanical degradation of the MIEC 1110 and the solid electrolyte 1400 covering the MIEC 1110 may be substantially reduced. However, the thickness of the walls of the MIEC 1110 should remain sufficiently thick (e.g., between about 1 nm to about 30 nm) to sustain electrochemically generated mechanical stress.

Eq. (1) also shows that the creep strain rate {dot over (ε)} scales with D⁻³ for a fixed stress. Thus, as D decreases, the creep strain rate may increase substantially. The transport of alkali metal 1300 is primarily driven by the Coble creep mechanism if the pores in the open pore structure 1120 have a diameter less than about 300 nm.

FIG. 4A shows the Coble creep mechanism may facilitate the transport of alkali metal 1300 in the open pore structure 1120 with a “rail-guided” behavior. As shown, the alkali metal ions (or atom) 1310 and the electrons 1320 may diffuse along a phase boundary 1330 between the alkali metal 1300 and the wall 1200 of the MIEC 1110. In this manner, the phase interface 1330 of the wall 1200 of the MIEC 1110 functions as a “rail”, which “guides” the transport of alkali metal ions (or atom) 1310 and electrons 1320. When the alkali metal ions 1310 undergo a reduction reaction with the electrons 1320, the resulting alkali metal 1300 precipitates out onto a front 1340 of previously deposited alkali metal 1300. Thus, the transport of alkali metal 1300 occurs via progressive plating/stripping of alkali metal 1300 along said front 1340.

The “rail-guided” behavior may also be used to transport alkali metal 1300 even when internal obstructions/obstacles are present within the open pore structure 1120. For example, FIG. 4B shows the Coble creep mechanism may occur along both the wall 1200 of the MIEC 1110 forming the pore and the surface of the obstruction 1220 (e.g., a three-dimensional structure disposed in the pore). However, the diffusion rate and/or the diffusion path length may vary depending on the orientation of the obstruction 1220. For instance, FIG. 4B shows the obstruction 1220 may be oriented at an angle relative to the wall 1200 resulting in the alkali metal ions (or atom) 1310 being transported along two different directions.

The diffusion rate of the alkali metal 1300 may also vary depending on whether a coherent or incoherent boundary is formed between the alkali metal 1300 and the wall 1200 of the MIEC 1110 and/or the surface of the obstruction 1220. FIG. 4C shows that a coherent boundary is formed when the atomic planes of the alkali metal 1300 and the MIEC 1110 are substantially aligned and matched. Otherwise, the presence of vacancy defects on the MIEC 1110 and/or the alkali metal 1300 may result in a semicoherent or incoherent boundary. The diffusion rate generally depends on the free volume of the interfacial region defined between the MIEC 1110 and the alkali metal 1300. Typically, a larger free volume results in a higher diffusion rate. FIG. 4C shows that a coherent boundary may have a free volume that is locally dispersed with a delta-function like distribution. Said in another way, a coherent boundary has limited vacancy defects resulting in a small free volume and, hence, a low diffusion rate. In contrast, an incoherent boundary may have a larger free volume resulting in a higher diffusion rate.

In some implementations, the MIEC 1110 may support multiple types of phase boundaries. For example, a MIEC 1110 formed from lithiated carbon and a lithiophilic coating (Li₂O) may have two phase boundaries: (1) a phase boundary between the Li metal and the Li₂O crystal (a few nanometers thick) and (2) a phase boundary between Li metal and lithiated carbon. In some implementations, the phase boundary between Li and Li₂O crystals may not exhibit a matched lattice due, in part, to the Li₂O being nanocrystalline, resulting in an incoherent boundary with a fast diffusion rate. Additionally, a MIEC 1110 formed from carbon may contain a mixture of graphite and amorphous carbon. As a result, the phase boundary between the Li metal and the lithiated carbon may have a free volume that spatially varies (i.e., not sharply localized at a certain site) between clusters of amorphous carbon, which may also increase the diffusion rate.

The local diffusion path length of the alkali metal 1300 may also vary based on the shape of the wall 1200 and/or the obstruction 1220 since the alkali metal 1300 follows the topology of a surface during deposition. FIG. 4D shows a comparison of the local diffusion path length between a rough surface (or a local structure with fine curvature) and a smooth surface. As shown, the local diffusion path length of the alkali metal 1300 is longer for the rough surface compared to the smooth surface.

In some implementations, the process of stripping alkali metal 1300 from the MIEC 1110 may generate a void plug 1350 (also referred to herein as “void space”) that grows between residual alkali metal 1300 and the solid electrolyte 1400. The presence of the void plug 1350, however, may not prevent the remaining alkali metal 1300 from being stripped. Rather, the void plug 1350 may continue to grow as more residual alkali metal 1300 is stripped from the MIEC 1110 by transporting the alkali metal 1300 along the interface and/or surface of the MIEC 1110. FIGS. 5A and 5B show two possible mechanisms for transport in the presence of a void plug. FIG. 5A shows a combination of dislocation and interfacial diffusion mechanisms may transport the alkali metal 1300. FIG. 5B shows only the interfacial diffusion mechanism transports alkali metal 1300. When a void plug occurs between the solid electrolyte 1400 and the residual alkali metal, dislocation power-law creep may be excluded as a transport mechanism since dislocation slip cannot occur in a void. Therefore, interfacial diffusion may be the primary mechanism for the deposition and stripping of the alkali metal 1300. In some implementations, interfacial diffusion may enable the alkali metal 1300 to climb over obstacles within the open pore structure 1120.

In some implementations, it may be preferable to design the open pore structure 1120 to preferentially increase contributions from a particular creep mechanism. For example, the shape and dimensions of the open pore structure may be chosen such that the alkali metal 1300 is driven primarily by a fast interfacial-diffusion creep mechanism, thereby achieving a desired current density through the MIEC 1110. In some implementations, an interfacial diffusion mechanism may also render the transport of alkali metal 1300 less dependent on the material used to form the MIEC 1110.

To illustrate the impact different transport mechanisms may have on the design and material choice of the MIEC 1110, the following example describes a MIEC 1110 applied to a Li battery. However, it should be appreciated that other alkali metals and performance metrics may be used depending on the application of the battery 1000. Batteries used in industrial applications should preferably exhibit an areal capacity Q about 3 mAh/cm² and a current density J≡dQ/dt about 3 mA/cm². In implementations where the alkali metal 1300 is Li, a typical Li-containing anode (LMA) may have an overpotential Uversus Li⁺/Li of approximately 50 mV.

As described above, the open pore structure 1120 formed by the MIEC 1110 may include multiple percolation pathways (e.g., about 10¹⁰ tubules) for alkali metal 1300 to flow through the MIEC 1110. The large number of percolation pathways may lead to heterogeneities within the MIEC 1110 that cause transport and reactions (e.g., an oxidation reaction, a reduction reaction) to vary spatially across the MIEC 1110. Additionally, an overpotential may be applied to the alkali metal 1300 to drive an electric current through the battery 1000. However, the overpotential may also cause the alkali metal 1300 to generate a pressure applied to the MIEC 1110 forming the open pore structure 1120. Due to the presence of heterogeneities within the MIEC 1110, the pressure produced by the alkali metal 1300 may vary spatially, resulting in an unbalanced load that may cause portions of the MIEC 1110 to deform or, in some instances, fracture.

The pressure generated by Li when subjected to an overpotential may be expressed as maxP_(LiMetal) [MPa]=7410U[V]. Thus, a larger overpotential directly results in a larger pressure applied to the MIEC 1110, which may lead to more rapid mechanical degradation of the MIEC 1110. For reference, an overpotential U=50 mV produces a pressure maxP_(LiMetal)=370 MPa according to the relation above.

In practice, it is preferable to limit the overpotential U in order to reduce the mechanical load applied within the MIEC 1110. However, the overpotential U, which is a global parameter for the battery 1000, should still be sufficiently large to provide a desired global average current density J. Based on the typical overpotential U=50 mV, the average transport conductance of the MIEC 1110 may be estimated to be equal to or greater than about 3 mA/cm²/50 mV=0.06 S/cm².

For purposes of illustration, the open pore structure 1120 may be a honeycomb structure with substantially aligned tubules. The effective transport conductance of the MIEC 1110 with a honeycomb open pore structure 1120 may be expressed as (κ_(MIEC)/h)×w/(w+W), where κ_(MIEC) [S/cm] is an effective Li conductivity, and w/(w+W) is the fill factor by the MIEC 1110 assuming substantially straight pores and a tortuosity=1. FIG. 6A shows an exemplary MIEC 1110 structured as a beehive (also referred to herein as “honeycomb”). FIGS. 6B and 6C show the volumetric and gravimetric capacity, respectively, of the MIEC 1110. Based on FIGS. 6B and 6C, the height h of the tubules should be at least about 20 μm in order for the anode 1100 to provide a capacity Q about 3 mAh/cm². The preferred height includes space for the inert host in the open pore structure 1120. For h=20 μm, the effective longitudinal transport conductance should be as follows,

κ_(MIEC) ×w/(w+W)>0.06 S/cm²×20 μm=0.12 mS/cm  (2)

Various mechanisms may contribute to the effective transport conductance, κ_(MIEC), of the MIEC 1110. For example, bulk diffusion of the alkali metal 1300 may occur within the MIEC 1110. The bulk diffusivity, κ_(MIEC) ^(bulk), may be expressed as follows,

κ_(MIEC) ^(bulk) ˜e ² c _(Li) DL _(Li) ^(bulk) /k _(B) T  (3)

where c_(Li) (unit 1/cm³) is the Li atom concentration, k_(B) is the Boltzmann constant, and D_(Li) ^(bulk) is the tracer diffusivity of Li atom in bulk MIEC 1110.

Based on Eq. (3), the contribution of bulk diffusion to the conductance of the MIEC 1110 may depend on the bulk diffusivity, D_(Li) ^(bulk), which may vary for different materials. Additionally, the MIEC 1110 should be compatible with the alkali metal 1300, which may be accomplished by alkaliating the material forming the MIEC 1110. For example, the MIEC 1110 may be compatible with Li when lithiated to below 0 V vs Li⁺/Li. Several anode materials may be used to form the MIEC 1110 including, but not limited to graphite or hard carbon (e.g., LiC₆), silicon (e.g., Li₂₂Si₅), and aluminum (e.g., Li₉Al₄). These materials are commonly used as anodes in previous Li batteries. Additional materials may be used to form the MIEC 1110 based on their electrochemical stability as will be described in further detail below. The bulk transport properties of carbon, silicon, and aluminum may be estimated to be the following: (1) LiC₆ has a c_(Li)=1.65×10²²/cm³ and an optimistic D_(Li) ^(bulk) about 10⁻⁷ cm²/s, (2) Li₂₂Si₅ has a c_(Li)=5.3×10²²/cm³ and an optimistic D_(Li) ^(bulk) about 10⁻¹¹ cm²/s, and (3) Li₉Al₄ has a c_(Li)=4×10²²/cm³ and an optimistic D_(Li) ^(bulk) about 10⁻⁹ cm²/s.

Using Eq. (3), lithiated aluminum, Li₉Al₄, exhibits a κ_(MIEC)(Li₉Al₄) about 0.25 mS/cm, which is sufficient to satisfy the condition in Eq. (2). The MIEC fill factor is thus

${w/\left( {w + W} \right)} = \frac{{0.1}2\frac{mS}{cm}}{k_{MIEC}}$

about 0.5. For a 100 nm wide pore, w=W about 100 nm. In other words, the width of the tubules and the walls of the MIEC 1110 should be comparable in size. For lithiated silicon (Li₂₂Si₅), the bulk diffusivity of D_(Li) ^(bulk) about 10⁻¹¹ cm²/s results in κ_(MIEC)(Li₂₂Si₅) about 0.003 mS/cm, which does not satisfy the condition in Eq. (2).

Lithiated carbon, LiC₆, exhibits the largest c_(Li)D_(Li) ^(bulk) amongst the three materials yielding a κ_(MIEC) ^(bulk)(LiC₆) about 0.01 S/cm based on Eq. (3). These estimates are based on previous diffusivity data, which exhibited large uncertainties. For a more conservative estimate, the diffusivity may thus be assumed to be D_(Li) ^(bulk) about 10^(−g) cm²/s, resulting in κ_(MIEC) ^(bulk)(LiC₆) about 1 mS/cm. For LiC₆, the fill factor of the MIEC 1110 should preferably be equal to or greater than

${w_{\min}/\left( {w_{\min} + W} \right)} = \frac{{0.1}2\frac{mS}{cm}}{k_{MIEC}}$

about 0.1. For a tubule width W about 100 nm, the thickness of the wall of the MIEC 1110 should thus be at least about w about 10 nm. These dimensions are similar to conventional graphite or hard carbon anodes used in Li-ion batteries (LIB), which typically have a film thickness of about 100 μm and are known to support a current density of 3 mA/cm² at an overpotential of about 50 mV.

However, an industrial LIB graphite anode typically operates near borderline conditions. A current density greater than about 3 mA/cm² through the LIB graphite anode may cause the local potential to drop below 0V vs Li⁺/Li. Under these conditions, Li metal would precipitate out of the anode resulting in the generation of new SEI when the Li metal contacts the flooding liquid electrolyte in the battery. The precipitation of Li metal and the generation of new SEI may severely degrade the cycle life and safety of LIB anodes.

Unlike conventional LIB graphite anodes, it is actually preferable for the alkali metal 1300 in the anode 1100 to “spill out” from the open pore structure 1120 of the MIEC 1110. The difference between the anode 1100 and previous anodes is the open pore structure 1120 formed by the MIEC 1110 enables a more controlled flow of alkali metal 1300. As described above, the open pore structure 1120 may substantially reduce or, in some instances, prevent a buildup of pressure P_(LiMetal), which may otherwise crack the solid electrolyte 1400. Additionally, the MIEC 1110 may be electrochemically stable against the alkali metal 1300, thus substantially reducing or, in some instances, preventing the generation of new SEI since the expanding and/or shrinking portions of the alkali metal 1300 are in contact with only the MIEC 1110.

The above example shows that in implementations where the alkali metal 1300 is transported primarily by bulk diffusion in the MIEC 1110, the materials used to form the MIEC 1110 should preferably exhibit a sufficiently large diffusivity to meet a desired current density. For example, the MIEC 1110 should be formed from a material having D_(Li) ^(bulk) at least about 10⁻⁸ cm²/s to achieve a desired current density of J about 3 mA/cm².

However, bulk diffusion is not the only mechanism that may contribute to the transport of alkali metal 1300 within the MIEC 1110. Interfacial transport of alkali metal 1300 may also occur along the surfaces of the MIEC 1110 (e.g., the interface between the MIEC 1110 and the open pore structure 1120). In some implementations, the contribution of interfacial transport to the overall transport conductance of the MIEC 1110 may be substantial, particularly for smaller sized tubules (e.g., tubules with a width W=100 nm and a wall thickness w=10 nm) where the surface area is large relative to the volume of the MIEC 1110. In some implementations, the MIEC 1110 may support fast-diffusion paths of width δ_(interface) (typically taken to be 2 Å) at the phase boundary between the MIEC 1110 and the alkali metal 1300 (e.g., the red/gray interface in FIG. 1) or the surface of the MIEC 1110 (e.g., the red/white interface in FIG. 1). The contributions of both the bulk and interfacial diffusion mechanisms to the overall effective transport conductance may be included by adding a size-dependent factor to the conductance as follows,

κ_(MIEC)=κ_(MIEC) ^(bulk)×(1+2D _(Li) ^(interface)δ_(interface) /D _(Li) ^(bulk) w)  (4)

The surface diffusivity of alkali metal 1300 may be estimated using empirical formulations. For example, the surface diffusivity of Li on a BCC Li metal may be estimated as follows,

D _(Li) ^(surface)=0.014 exp(−6.54T _(M) /T)[cm² /s]  (5)

Eq. (5) has been shown to accurately predict the diffusivity of monatomic metals. At room temperature, Eq. (5) predicts D_(Li) ^(surface)=7×10⁻⁷ cm²/s in BCC Li, which is 70× larger than D_(Li) ^(bulk) about 10⁻⁸ cm²/s in LiC₆ in the previous example. The geometric factor, 2δ_(interface)/w, is approximately 4 Å/10 nm= 1/25. If D_(Li) ^(interface) is assumed to be similar to D_(Li) ^(surface), the contribution of interfacial diffusion to the overall conductance may still be 3× larger than bulk diffusion within the MIEC 1110 for LiC₆.

Generally, the phase boundary between the MIEC 1110 and the alkali metal 1300 may have a lower atomic free volume compared to a free alkali metal surface. Thus, D_(Li) ^(interface) may be smaller than D_(Li) ^(interface)=7×10⁻⁷ cm²/s. For example, experimental diffusivity data suggests that D_(Li) ^(interface)≈2×10⁻⁷ cm²/s, which is still comparable to the bulk diffusivity of LiC₆. For Li₉Al₄ and Li₂₂Si₅, D_(Li) ^(interface) is several orders of magnitude larger than D_(Li) ^(bulk). In particular, the ratio D_(Li) ^(interface)/D_(Li) ^(bulk) is 200 for Li₉Al₄ and 20,000 for Li₂₂Si₅, which is substantially larger than the geometric factor 2δ_(interface)/w ( 1/25 for w=10 nm). As a result, the contribution of bulk diffusion in the MIEC 1110 for these materials may be treated as being negligible. Thus, interfacial diffusion alone may yield an effective 1MIEC about 1 mS/cm, which satisfies the conditions in Eq. (2). The MIEC fill factor is thus w/(w+W)=0.1.

When interfacial diffusion is substantial, the MIEC 1110 may achieve a desired current density even when formed from materials with a poor bulk diffusivity, such as Li₉Al₄ and Li₂₂Si₅, since the diffusion flux along the δ_(interface)≈2 Å MIEC/metal incoherent interface and/or MIEC surface is substantially larger than the bulk diffusion through the wall of the MIEC 1110. As a result, the ionic transport within the open pore structure 1120 may depend solely on the dimensions of the open pore structure 1120, which allows the MIEC 1110 to be formed from a broader range of electrochemically stable materials. For example, the MIEC 1110 may be formed from a material that exhibits desirable mechanical properties (e.g., toughness, yield strength, ductility) despite having a low bulk diffusivity.

As described above, the MIEC 1110 may be formed from typical anode materials such as carbon, silicon, and aluminum. More generally, the MIEC 1110 may be formed from a material that is electrochemically stable against the alkali metal 1300 such that the MIEC 1110 does not decompose to form fresh SEI at the interface between the MIEC 1110 and the alkali metal 1300. The alkali metal 1300 may be various types of metals including, but not limited to lithium, sodium, and potassium. In some implementations, only the MIEC 1110 (and not the solid electrolyte 1400) may be formed of an electrochemically stable material since the front 1340 of the alkali metal 1300 remains in contact with only the MIEC 1110 when extending into the open pore structure 1120 or receding from the open pore structure 1120. In this manner, no new SEI is formed as the battery 1000 is cycled. In some implementations, the MIEC 1110 and the solid electrolyte 1400 may both be formed of an electrochemically stable material, thus eliminating the generation of SEI during cycling and initial charging of the battery 1000. It should be appreciated that if the MIEC 1110 crumbles into pieces that are then embedded into the alkali metal 1300, electronic and ionic percolation is still possible since the MIEC 1110 is electrically and ionically conductive.

The MIEC 1110 may be made compatible with the alkali metal 1300 by alkaliating the MIEC 1110. Referring to the above example, a MIEC 1110 used in a Li battery may be lithiated to below 0V vs Li⁺/Li to form compounds such as LiC₆ using carbon, Li₂₂Si₅ using silicon, and Li₉Al₄ using aluminum. Electrochemical stability of the MIEC 1110 may be evaluated on the basis that a thermodynamically stable compound is formed between the MIEC 1110 and the alkali metal 1300.

For example, FIG. 7A shows an equilibrium phase diagram between Li, Al, and Si. An electrochemically stable compound is formed when the alkaliated compound (e.g., a lithiated material in this case) is directly connected to the BCC Li metal phase by a tie-line. As shown, Li₂₂Si₅ and Li₉Al₄ are end-member phases directly connected to Li by tie-lines (A) and (B), respectively. The electrochemical stability of other materials may be evaluated in a similar manner, i.e., the alkialated compound has a direct tie-line to the alkali metal 1300. FIG. 7B shows another equilibrium phase diagram between Li, Ti, and N₂. As shown, numerous electrochemically stable lithiated compounds may be used including Li₃N, Li₅TiN₃, TiN, Ti₂N, and Ti. FIG. 7C shows yet another equilibrium phase diagram between Li, Ni, and Si. In this case, the electrochemically stable lithiated compounds are Ni, LiSiNi₂, and Li₂₂Si₅ (as before).

As evidenced by the phase diagrams of FIGS. 7A-7C, the MIEC 1110 may be formed from a wide range of materials, especially when compared to the solid electrolyte 1400, of which few materials are electrochemically stable against the alkali metal 1300. This provides greater flexibility in terms of using materials with desirable electrical, ionic, and mechanical properties. If the MIEC 1110 and the open pore structure 1120 are shaped and dimensioned such that the alkali metal 1300 is primarily driven by the interfacial transport mechanisms describe above, the ionic and/or electron transport properties and the mechanical stability of the MIEC 1110 may be decoupled from the material composition. This provides additional flexibility since a material may be selected for the MIEC 1110 based on fewer material parameters.

For example, the MIEC 1110 may be formed from a material having a large mechanical toughness (e.g., the material absorbs a large amount of energy before fracturing) to withstand the mechanical stresses generated by the alkali metal 1300 when cycling the battery 1000. In another example, the MIEC 1110 may be formed from a material that has an incoherent boundary/interface with the alkali metal 1300 to increase the free volume of the phase boundary and, in turn, increase the diffusion transport rate. In another example, the MIEC 1110 may be formed from a passive material (e.g., TiN) that does not store and/or release the alkali metal 1300 when cycling the battery 1000. For such materials, the alkali metal 1300 is primarily stored and/or release from the open pore structure 1120 formed by the MIEC 1110.

In some implementations, the surfaces of the MIEC 1110 forming the open pore structure 1120 may also be coated with an alkaliphilic coating to increase the electrical and ionic conductance between the MIEC 1110 and the alkali metal 1300. For example, a thin ZnO_(x) film (e.g., about 1 nm) may be deposited onto the surfaces of the open pore structure 1120 in cases where the alkali metal 1300 is Li. The deposition of Li metal onto the ZnO_(x) coating may cause a layer of Li₂O to form at the interface between the MIEC 1110 and the alkali metal 1300. The Li₂O film may increase the wettability of the Li metal to the MIEC 1110, ensuring contact is maintained as more alkali metal 1300 is deposited in the open pore structure 1120. The alkaliphilic coating may thus provide a deformable, wetting, and lubricating film to enhance contact and transport of the alkali metal 1300 in the MIEC 1110.

A First Exemplary Demonstration with a Single Carbon Hollow Tubule (CHT)

A demonstration of the MIEC 1110 will now be described. Specifically, the transport of the alkali metal 1300 through the open pore structure 1120 was observed and characterized by performing experiments where Li metal was transported through individual carbon hollow tubule (CHT). FIG. 8 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental setup 2000. As shown, the setup 2000 comprises a solid-state nanobattery 1000 electrically coupled to a voltage source 2500.

The nanobattery 1000 included an anode 1100 comprising one or more CHT's 2100. The CHT's 2100 were coupled to a transmission electron microscope (TEM) copper grid 2140 using silver conductive epoxy. Thus, the CHT's 2100 served as the MIEC 1110 and the copper grid 2140 served as the current collector 1140. The nanobattery 1000 also included a counter-electrode 2200 comprising a tungsten probe 2210, which was coated with Li metal 2220 in a glove box filled with Ar gas. A solid electrolyte 1400 comprising poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO) and Lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) were dissolved in 1-Butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (ionic liquid). The Li metal 2220 on the tungsten probe 2210 was then coated with an approximately 50 μm thick film of the solid electrolyte 1400 inside the glove box filled with Ar gas.

The nanobattery 1000 was placed in a TEM (JEOL 2010F) for in situ imaging and characterization at 200 kV. Specifically, the TEM included a Nanofactory STM/TEM holder, which held the counter-electrode 2200 via the tungsten probe 2210. The anode 1100 was mounted to a sample holder. After loading the counter-electrode 2200 and the anode 1100 into the TEM, the STM/TEM holder supporting the counter-electrode 2200 was moved until the solid electrolyte 1400 contacted the free ends of the CHT's 2100, thus completing the assembly of the nanobattery 1000.

The voltage source 2500 was used, in part, to electrically control the transport of Li metal into and/or out of the MIEC 1110. Specifically, lithium plating and stripping in the CHTs 2100 were realized by applying −2 V and +2 V with respect to the lithium metal.

The CHT's 2100 were synthesized using the following steps: (1) obtaining a solution by dissolving 1 g of polyacrylonitrile (PAN, Aldrich) and 1.89 g of Zn(Ac)₂.2H₂O in 30 mL of dimethylformamide (DMF, Aldrich) solvent, (2) synthesizing PAN/Zn(Ac)₂ composite fibers via electrospinning by using the solution of (1) at 17 kV of working voltage, 0.05 mm/min of flow rate, and 20 cm of electrospinning distance, (3) forming a layer of Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework (ZIF-8) on the surface of the composite fibers by adding the fibers into an ethanol solution containing 2-methylimidazole (0.65 g, Aldrich), and (4) heating the synthesized core-shell composite fibers at 600-700° C. for 12 h to obtain the CHTs with some lithiophilic ZnO_(x). In step (3), a trace amount of cobalt acetate was introduced into the composite fibers to improve the degree of the graphitization of the synthesized CHTs.

FIGS. 9A and 9B show TEM images of the CHT's 2100 coupled to the solid electrolyte (SE) 2230 after assembly in the TEM. FIGS. 9C and 9D show magnified TEM images of a single CHT 2100 fabricated using the above method. As shown, the resultant CHT's 2100 had an inner diameter W of about 100 nm and a wall thickness w of about 20 nm. FIG. 9D also shows the CHT 2100 is nanoporous. Thus, the CHT's 2100, as constructed, would allow the inert gas phase in a battery 1000 to equilibrate when depositing Li in the open pore structure 1120.

The in-situ TEM experiments were performed under conditions that reduced electron beam damage. Li metal is sensitive to electron beam irradiation in a TEM due, in part, to the elastic and inelastic scattering between the incident electron beam and the sample. The elastic interactions from electron-nucleus scattering may lead to sputtering damage. The inelastic interactions from electron-electron scattering may cause damage due to specimen heating and radiolysis. When taking images and/or video of the nanobattery 1000, an electron beam current of about 1.5 mA/cm² was used to reduce damage. Images were also acquired at a slight underfocus condition to enhance the contrast. The electron beam was also banked prior to imaging the sample and the exposure time (e.g., for taking a video) was limited to 2 minutes. The electron beam was also blanked while plating and stripping Li, except when making observations, to reduce the effect of electron beam impinging on the sample.

The nanobattery 1000 was also characterized by other instruments including a high-resolution TEM (HRTEM), a field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM, FEI Helios 600 Dual Beam FIB), an energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscope (EDX, oxford), and an X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, PHI5600).

FIG. 10 shows a series of TEM images where Li is progressively plated along a single CHT with ZnO_(x). As shown, the Li exhibits a front (indicated by the white arrow) that moves along the CHT as more Li is deposited. The Li initially underwent electrodeposition at the end of the CHT and proceeded to fill the initial void plug of the tubule. FIG. 11 shows a series of TEM images where Li is progressively stripped along the CHT of FIG. 10. FIGS. 10 and 11 thus show Li can be reversible deposited/stripped within a CHT.

FIGS. 12A and 12B show selected area electron diffraction (SAED) patterns before and after the Li metal front passes a portion of the CHT, respectively. The SAED patterns were acquired using a spread electron beam with an electron beam current below 1 mA/cm² to reduce irradiation damage. FIG. 12A shows a ring pattern indicating the CHT had an amorphous morphology. FIG. 12B shows a pattern with well-defined spots that correspond to the crystal planes of Li. In particular, the (110)_(BCC Li) is found to be perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the CHT and the (110)_(BCC Li) is found to be parallel to the CHT axis. A circle intersecting the spots in the SAED pattern of FIG. 12B indicates the lattice spacing is about 0.248 nm.

FIG. 13 further shows the SAED patterns of the CHT with Li may be used to evaluate the crystal structure of Li. In particular, the two pairs of symmetric diffraction spots in the two SAED patterns were offset by a measured angle of 60° from one another. The indexing and the measured 60° angle between the two pairs of the symmetric spots match the standard indexed diffraction patterns for a BCC crystal in a [111] beam direction under six-fold symmetry. Additionally, the distance between the collected diffraction spots is similar to BCC lattice of Li. These results suggest the Li being transported through the CHT is indeed a solid-phase and, in fact, substantially single crystalline.

FIGS. 14A-14C show HRTEM images of a portion of the CHT as a fresh Li crystal is formed within the CHT. The HRTEM images of the Li metal plated inside the tubule were acquired using an electron beam current of about 0.3-0.5 Å/cm². FIG. 14C shows that when the Li crystal was first formed, lattice fringes with 0.248 nm lattice spacing were observed corresponding to the Li (110) planes. The Li lattice fringes remained for several seconds before vanishing due to electron beam irradiation damage. The CHTs helped to reduce irradiation damage when imaging the Li inside the tubule. The Li₂O is also robust to electron beam irradiation. Sputtering damage due to elastic scattering was reduced by confining the Li inside the CHT. For inelastic scattering, the CHT provided sufficient thermal and electrical conduction to dissipate heat generated by electron irradiation.

FIG. 15A shows electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) spectra of the Li K-edge measured after Li deposition inside the CHT using an approximately parallel electron beam in diffraction mode with an energy resolution of 1.5 eV. The EELS spectra were collected using a scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) mode. The electron beam spot size was about 1 nm with a semi-convergence angle of about 5 mrad and a semi-collection angle of about 10 mrad. As shown, the Li K-edge obtained exhibited a shoulder at 55.9 eV and a peak rising at 62.5 eV. These spectral features are similar to the features of the Li K-edge previously measured from a Li metal dendrite at cryogenic conditions (see FIG. 15B), further confirming the presence of Li in the CHT.

FIG. 16A shows another reference EELS spectra of Li K-edges for Li₂O and LiOH with peaks appearing at 58.2 eV, 62.7 eV and 75 eV. FIG. 16B shows another reference EELS spectra of Li K-edges for Li₂O₂ and Li₂CO₃. A clear difference may be observed when comparing the measured EELS spectra of FIG. 15A to the reference EELS spectra of FIGS. 16A and 16B This indicates the Li phase deposited in the CHT is not Li₂O, LiOH, Li₂O₂ or Li₂CO₃. In other words, the EELS spectra show the Li phase deposited and stripped from the CHT is not a Li oxide or another phase.

FIGS. 17A-17E show TEM images of a long CHT, which was used to demonstrate Li metal transport across distances of several microns (i.e., a length scale comparable to the height of the MIEC 1110 in the battery 1000). FIG. 17A shows a low magnification image of the long CHT and FIGS. 17B and 17C show magnified images of sections (A) and (B) along the long CHT. FIG. 17D shows Li metal plating at section (A) of the CHT and FIG. 17E shows Li metal stripping at section (B) of the CHT. Section (B) of the long CHT was measured to be over 6 μm away from the solid electrolyte 1400. Thus, observations of Li metal at section (B) indicates the length of Li plated along the CHT was at least 6 μm.

FIGS. 18A-18F show TEM images of a CHT with obstructions disposed in the interior space of the CHT. FIGS. 18A and 18B show low magnification images of a section of the CHT before and after Li plating, respectively. These images show that Li deposition may still occur despite the presence of the obstructions within the CHT. This may be attributed to the Li metal being primarily driven by interfacial diffusion, which is insensitive to obstacles and/or obstructions within the MIEC 1110. In other words, interfacial diffusion may enable the Li metal to “climb over” obstructions within the CHT by following a more tortuous path due to the local structures of the obstructions in the CHT.

FIGS. 18C-18F show a series of images of a particular section of the CHT where Li first diffuses along the surface of a local 3D structure inside the CHT followed by Li plating and filling the open pores in the CHT. The thermodynamic driving force originating from the overpotential (chemical potential) may drive an atomic fountain-like behavior causing Li to fill the open pores and, on average, guide the Li flux along the overall direction of the CHT channel. Said in another way, the multi-tip-deposition of Li may initially fill the inside spaces defined by the 3D structures/obstructions in the CHT. Although Li plating may locally follow the surfaces of the 3D structures defining said spaces, the overall direction of Li deposition is ultimately confined by the walls of the CHT and, hence, should follow the longitudinal axis of the CHT (e.g., the overall “rail”) as shown in FIGS. 18A and 18B.

As previously described, multiple types of creep mechanisms (e.g., interfacial diffusion, power-law dislocation) may contribute to the transport of alkali metal 1300 in the open pore structure 1120. To distinguish between the two creep mechanisms, experiments were performed based on the schematic of FIG. 5B. It should be appreciated that the stripping process depicted in FIG. 5A may allow both interfacial diffusion mechanism and dislocation motion mechanism to co-exist; hence, an in-situ TEM experiment would be unable to differentiate between the two mechanisms. However, the schematic of FIG. 5B includes a void space between the Li metal and the solid electrolyte. In this configuration, the dislocation-slip mechanism cannot occur due to the presence of the void space, thus observation of Li transport would imply interfacial diffusion along the MIEC wall interior or interface.

FIG. 19 show a series of TEM images of Li being stripped from a CHT with a void space between the Li metal and the solid electrolyte 1400. As shown, Li metal may still be stripped despite the presence of the void space in the CHT. The white arrows in FIG. 19 indicate the movement of the free surface of the Li metal crystal (LiBCC) as Li atoms on said free surface diffuse towards the Li(BCC)/MIEC interface and undergo interfacial diffusion. The stripping rate of Li was also measured to be similar to other experiments with no void space, which suggests dislocation power-law creep does not contribute appreciably to Li transport. Instead, these results indicate the transport of Li through the CHT is driven primarily by interfacial diffusion (i.e., Coble creep).

The mechanism for transporting alkali metal 1300 across a single pore in the open pore structure 1120 is scalable. For example, FIGS. 20A and 20B show two neighboring CHT's may also rail-guide Li plating and/or stripping along the length of each tubule. The filling ratio of Li inside the tubule was estimated by an EELS thickness measurement. The thickness measurement was performed using an absolute log-ratio method, which is based on the following,

$\begin{matrix} {\frac{t}{\lambda} = {\ln\left( \frac{I_{t}}{I_{0}} \right)}} & (6) \end{matrix}$

where t stands for the thickness, λ stands for effective mean free path, I_(t) is the intensity integrated over the EELS spectrum, and Jo is the intensity integrated under a zero loss peak.

The accelerating voltage, semi-convergence, and semi-collection angles previous described and the atomic number, Z_(eff), was used to calculate X. Before Li plating, Z_(eff)=6 for the CHT. After Li plating, Z_(eff) may be estimated based on a mixture of Li and CHT at the location where the EELS signal was recorded. For example, an atomic ratio between Li and C may be estimated to be 0.56:1 based on the observed geometry of the tubule (e.g., an inner diameter of about 100 nm and a wall thickness of about 28 nm). Thus, Z_(eff) may be estimated using the following,

$\begin{matrix} {Z_{eff} = \frac{\sum_{i}{f_{i}Z_{i}^{1.3}}}{\sum_{i}{f_{i}Z_{i}^{0.3}}}} & (7) \end{matrix}$

Based on Eq. (7) and the above values, Z_(eff)=5.1 after Li plating. FIGS. 20C and 20D show EELS spectra before and after Li plating at the location marked (+) in FIG. 20A. The Li K-edge of Li was obtained by background subtraction. Based on the EELS spectra, the thickness of the CHT before and after Li plating were estimated to be about 68 nm and about 160 nm. Therefore, the thickness difference, which corresponds to the thickness of the Li plated, was estimated to be about 92 nm (the inner-diameter of the tubule is about 100 nm).

As further demonstration of the scalable nature of the MIEC 1110 mechanisms described herein, FIGS. 21A and 21B show another set of TEM images where Li is plated simultaneously along three aligned tubules. In FIG. 21B, the brightness is darker, indicating deposition of Li, despite blurring caused by thicker walls of each CHT. Larger scale demonstrations of an exemplary MIEC 1110 are described in further detail below.

As previously mentioned, the transport of the alkali metal 1300 may be primarily driven by the Coble creep mechanism when the characteristic width of each pore in the open pore structure 1120 is less than about 300 nm. For example, FIGS. 22A and 22B show Li plating and stripping, respectively, in a CHT with a 200 nm diameter. FIGS. 23A and 23B show Li plating and stripping, respectively, in a CHT with a 100 nm diameter. FIG. 24 shows Li plating in a CHT with a 30 nm diameter. FIG. 25 shows Li plating in a CHT with a 60 nm diameter. The wall thicknesses ranged between about 50 to 60 nm.

For FIGS. 24 and 25, the small amount of Li deposited within the CHT results in a low image contrast; hence, the presence of Li is difficult to observe. To show Li was plated in these smaller tubules, a large reverse bias voltage of 10 V may be applied, causing Li to overflow from the CHT. This is indicated by a bulge of Li in FIG. 24 and a leak of Li in FIG. 25.

As described above, the open pore structure 1120 formed by the MIEC 1110 may be coated with an alkaliphilic coating that increases wettability towards the alkali metal 1300, thus increasing ionic and electrical contact with the MIEC 1110. Experiments were performed to characterize the interface between the BCC Li metal (the alkali metal 1300) and a Li₂O coating (the alkaliphilic coating) formed, in part, by coating the CHT with ZnO_(x), which results a conversion/alloying reaction of ZnO_(x)+(2x+y)Li=ZnLi_(y)+xLi₂O. Due to challenges in observing the Li₂O coating inside the CHT, the Li metal was intentionally over-plated during deposition in order to increase the pressure P_(LiMetal)(x) until Li metal whiskers were extruded out of the CHT. The Li whiskers, which included the Li₂O coating, were then analyzed.

FIG. 26A shows an SEM image of an exemplary CHT coated with ZnO_(x). FIGS. 26B-26D show EDX maps of C, O, and Zn, respectively. As shown, the ZnO_(x) coating is uniformly distributed in the CHT. FIGS. 27A-27C show corresponding XPS spectra for the Cis, Zn2P_(3/2), and O1s lines, which further confirms the presence of ZnO_(x). For instance, the O1s peak in FIG. 27C may be attributed to a sum of two peaks corresponding to C—O and Zn—O. FIGS. 28A and 28B show EDX spectra of the CHT sample before and after acid treatment. FIG. 29 shows a table of the Zn and O ratios in the CHT samples before and after said acid treatment. The stoichiometry of ZnO_(x) may be estimated from FIG. 29 to be x about (10.01−9.09)/2.03=0.45. The atomic ratio of zinc atoms of zinc oxide to carbon atoms is about 2%.

FIGS. 30A-30E show a series of dark-field images of an exemplary CHT being over-plated with Li. FIG. 30A shows the Li metal is initially plated inside the CHT. FIG. 30B shows that after additional deposition of Li, the Li metal breaks through the CHT wall and begins to wet the outer surface of the CHT. FIGS. 30C and 30D show that with further Li deposition, the Li metal spreads across the exterior surface of the CHT. FIG. 30E shows that after Li sufficiently wets the outer surface of the CHT, subsequent deposition of Li results in an outgrowth of Li, thus forming the Li whisker.

FIG. 31 shows a HRTEM image of the CHT before Li plating. As shown, no Li₂O layer was observed to be present on the outer surface of the CHT. FIGS. 32A-32C show the Li₂O layer growing from the outer surface of the CHT as the Li metal is being over-plated in the CHT. FIG. 32D shows a magnified image of FIG. 32C where the lattice fringes of the Li₂O coating are observable. As shown, the lattice fringes exhibit a spacing of 0.27 nm corresponding to the lattice spacing of the Li₂O (111) planes. FIG. 33 shows an HRTEM image of the Li₂O coating formed onto the carbon surface of the CHT.

FIG. 34A shows an image of a Li whisker extending from the outer surface of the CHT. As shown, the whisker exhibits favorable parallel interfaces between the {110} crystal planes of Li metal and the {111} crystal planes of Li₂O (i.e. {110}_(BCC Li)//{111}_(FCC Li2O)). FIG. 34B shows a SAED pattern of the Li whisker and the Li₂O coating where the side edges of the Li whisker are shown as {110}_(BCC) planes. FIG. 34C further shows an HRTEM image of the Li₂O layer on the Li metal. The side edges of the Li₂O coating present{111}_(FCC) planes.

The Li₂O layer has an FCC crystal structure, thus the {110}_(BCC)//{111}_(FCC) orientation relationship is similar to the Kurdjumov-Sachs orientation relationship (OR) in various steels. Both the {111}_(FCC) and {110}_(BCC) are slip planes, thus the orientation relationship may be formed due to minute local slippage. The OR provides strong adhesion between the Li and Li₂O phases, thus enabling the Li₂O crystalline layer to remain attached to the Li metal as a lubricant layer. The lateral growth of the Li₂O layer by interfacial diffusion was observed on a thicker Li metal nanostructure outside the tubule. FIGS. 35A and 35B show the {111}_(Li2O) planes, which are parallel to the outer surface of the CHT, advancing outwards. FIG. 35C shows EELS spectra of the Li K-edge on the outer layer of Li₂O. Li₂O is shown as a shoulder feature in the spectra. These results show that post-formed Li₂O nanocrystals may also creep and re-arrange to wet the Li metal.

Based on the results above, a few-nm thick Li₂O layer may function as a ‘lubricant’ by enabling slight slippage between the Li and Li₂O surfaces, which increases the mechanical durability and provides strong adhesion between the Li metal and the MIEC, thus ensuring lithiophilicity on the MIEC wall.

In some implementations, the thin lubricant layer may spread onto at least one of the current collector 1140 and/or the solid electrolyte 1400. Once this occurs, a thin wetting layer of Li metal may follow, forming an atomically-thin, but effective ionic and electronic conduction channel (“composite interfacial MIEC”). The thin wetting layer of Li metal may ensure any Li metal in the open pore structure 1120 (e.g., the Li metal beads α, β, and γ in FIG. 1) is connected to the MIEC 1110. In other words, the thin wetting layer of Li may prevent the formation of patches with poor conductivity that may otherwise generate dead Li in the MIEC 1110.

Cycling tests were also performed on a single CHT where Li metal was continually transported into and out of the CHT. FIG. 36A shows the charging profile (voltage as a function of time) for the first cycle (i.e., first lithiation) at a galvanostatic current of 50 pA. As shown, the voltage progressively decreases when larger than 0 V. This sloped voltage feature is attributed to the lithiation of the CHT, which enables the CHT to function as the MIEC 1110. When the voltage falls below 0 V during the same lithiation cycle, the voltage saturates to a stable plateau at about −0.25 V corresponding to the plating of Li metal inside the CHT.

FIG. 36B shows the charging profile for subsequent cycles after the CHT is first lithiated at a galvanostatic current of 50 pA. As shown, the voltage remains fairly stable below 0 V when charging the CHT, which corresponds to BCC Li being plated inside the CHT. When discharging the CHT, the voltage remains stable above 0 V corresponding to BCC Li being stripped form the CHT. The charge process occurred at an overpotential of about −0.15 V and the discharge process occurred at an overpotential of about 0.25V. FIG. 36B also shows corresponding TEM images of the CHT, the CHT after Li plating, and the CHT after Li stripping. As shown, the CHT after Li plating is a darker gray, which indicates Li metal filled the CHT.

FIGS. 37A-37K each show a series of TEM images of the CHT being charged (Li deposition) and discharged (Li stripping) for the 1^(st), 10^(th), 20^(th), 30^(th), 40^(th), 50^(th), 60^(th), 70^(th), 80^(th), 90^(th), and 100^(th) cycle. As shown, the CHT remains mechanically intact after 100 cycles of Li metal plating and stripping.

The experimental demonstrations described above have focused on using Li as the alkali metal 1300 in the MIEC 1110. However, it should be appreciated that the transport mechanisms and the designs for the MIEC 1110 and open pore structure 1120 are general and may be applied to other materials including, but not limited to sodium (Na) and potassium (K). For example, FIG. 38A shows a series of TEM images where Na metal is deposited inside a CHT. FIG. 38B shows a series of TEM images of Na metal being stripped from the CHT. Similar to the Li metal experiments, the Na metal may be transported through the interior space of the CHT with a well-defined front. This suggests Na metal may also be transported through the CHT by interfacial diffusion. FIG. 38C shows a SAED pattern of the CHT after being plated with Na metal. As shown, the pattern exhibits well-defined spots corresponding to Na crystal planes. This suggests the Na metal is transported as a substantially single crystalline solid in the CHT.

A Second Exemplary Demonstration with a Carbonaceous MIEC Beehive

The previous demonstration evaluated the transport of alkali metal 1300 through a single (or few) tubules representing the MIEC 1110. To demonstrate the scalability and use of the MIEC 1110 in a practical device, a large scale MIEC was fabricated and integrated into a cm×cm all-solid-state full cell battery. Specifically, a carbonaceous MIEC beehive was fabricated with about 10¹⁰ aligned tubules where each tubule had an aspect ratio on the order of about 10². A half-cell and a full-cell were then assembled with the carbonaceous MIEC beehive for use with Li metal. It should be appreciated the techniques previously described may also be used to characterize the carbonaceous MIEC beehive.

The carbonaceous MIEC beehive was synthesized as a Li host using the following steps: (1) growing a layer of carbon onto the inner surface of an anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) template using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) with a C₂H₂ gas flow rate of 90 sccm at 640° C., (2) depositing a layer of Pt onto the bottom of the AAO template as the current conductor via sputtering, (3) etching the AAO template using a 3M NaOH aqueous solution with a small amount of ethanol to obtain the carbonaceous MIEC beehive, and (4) depositing a 1 nm-thick ZnO layer onto the inner-surface of MIEC beehive using atomic layer deposition (ALD) to enhance the lithiophilicity of the MIEC beehive.

FIGS. 39A-39C show FESEM images of an exemplary carbonaceous MIEC beehive. As shown, the carbonaceous MIEC beehive is comprised of an array of aligned CHT's. FIG. 40 shows a TEM image of a couple CHT's within the carbonaceous MIEC beehive. FIG. 41A shows a SEM image of a portion of the carbonaceous MIEC beehive comprising several tubules. FIGS. 41B-41D show EDX maps of the portion of carbonaceous MIEC beehive of FIG. 41A for C, O, and Zn, respectively. As shown, the 1 nm-thick ZnO layer deposited on the surface of the CHT's is uniform.

Nanoindentation tests were performed to evaluate whether the carbonaceous MIEC beehive can sustain a gas-pressurized environment. FIG. 42 shows a load-displacement curve of the carbonaceous MIEC beehive, which indicates the measured nominal hardness is about 65 MPa.

This hardness is sufficient to sustain at least a gas pressure of about 10¹ MPa (i.e., a compression ratio of 10×) when the gas is compressed by Li metal deposition in the MIEC.

A half-cell 3000 was assembled that included the carbonaceous MIEC beehive, a solid electrolyte, and a Li metal counter-electrode. First, a about 200 nm thick layer of lithium phosphorus oxynitride (LiPON) was deposited onto the MIEC beehive via sputtering deposition to obstruct the open pores, thereby reducing the inflow of polymeric solid electrolyte into the MIEC beehive during testing at 55° C. FIG. 43 shows a FESEM image of an exemplary carbonaceous MIEC beehive partially covered with LiPON. The LiPON does not necessarily provide hermiticity to the carbonaceous MIEC beehive. However, a 50 μm thick contiguous polymeric solid electrolyte layer disposed thereafter does provide hermeticity. A P(EO/EM/AGE)/LiTFSI film (KISCO Ltd.) was used as the solid electrolyte for the half-cell 3000. The MIEC beehive and a Li metal chip (more than 100× excess) were pressed onto opposing sides of the solid electrolyte film to complete assembly of a 2032 coin cell. The Li metal chip was used as the counter-electrode. No (ionic) liquid or gel electrolyte was used.

FIG. 44A shows an image of an exemplary carbonaceous MIEC beehive. The cm×cm×50 μm piece was plated with Pt as the current collector 1140 (see FIG. 44C) and was readily handled during assembly without the MIEC beehive being damaged. FIG. 44B shows an image of an exemplary P(EO/EM/AGE)/LiTFSI film. FIG. 44D shows an FESEM image of the carbonaceous MIEC beehive coated with Pt as the current collector 1140.

FIG. 45A shows a schematic of an exemplary half-cell 3000 using the carbonaceous MIEC beehive for testing. As shown, a voltage source is coupled to the Li counter-electrode and the Pt current collector. The obtained Li/SE/MIEC beehive half-cell 3000 was tested at different current densities of 0.125, 0.25 and 0.5 mA/cm². The half-cell 3000 was initially cycled for several cycles to stabilize the interface between the solid electrolyte and the electrode. Additionally, a reference half-cell was constructed using a carbon-coated Cu foil as the Li host for comparison with the half-cell 3000 using the carbonaceous MIEC beehive.

FIGS. 45B and 45C show exemplary charge/discharge profiles for Li plating and stripping, respectively. The pink line represents the half-cell 3000 with the carbonaceous MIEC beehive and the green line represents the half-cell using the carbon-coated Cu foil as the Li host. FIG. 45D shows the overpotential and Coulombic efficiency (CE) as various current densities. The CE was obtained by calculating the ratio of the discharge and the charge capacity. FIG. 45E shows the charge/discharge voltage profile as a function of time for the half-cells to evaluate cycling stability. When compared to the reference half-cell, the half-cell 3000 with the MIEC exhibits a lower overpotential (39 mV vs 250 mV at 0.125 mA/cm²), a higher CE (97.12% vs 74.34% at 0.125 mA/cm²), and better cycling stability as indicated by the longer lifetime of the half-cell with the MIEC in FIG. 45E.

FIG. 45F shows a chart of the capacity and current density as measured for the half-cell 3000 with the MIEC and the reference half-cell and compared against previously demonstrated batteries. As shown, the half-cell 3000 is able to cycle a large amount of Li metal with a large areal capacity of about 1.5 mAh/cm², which is substantially larger than the reference half-cell (about 1.0 mAh/cm²) and previous all-solid-state batteries (up to about 0.5 mAh/cm²).

A full-cell was also assembled and tested using the carbonaceous MIEC beehive. The full-cell included a LiFePO₄ cathode, which was constructed from the active material LiFePO₄ (60 wt %), polyethylene oxide (PEO, 20 wt %), LiTFSI (10 wt %), and carbon black (10 wt %). The mass loading was 4-6 mg (LiFePO₄)/cm². FIG. 46 shows an image of an exemplary LiFePO₄ cathode. An exemplary 2032 coin cell was constructed using the carbonaceous MIEC beehive as the anode (pre-deposited with only 1× excess Li), the LiFePO₄ electrode as the cathode, and a solid electrolyte in an Ar-filled glove box. It should be appreciated that previous all-solid-state batteries typically use commercial Li foil (100× excess), which results in less efficient use of Li. The all-solid-state battery was tested at 55° C. with a LAND battery tester between 2.5 and 3.85 V. Again no (ionic) liquid or gel electrolyte was used. A reference full-cell was also constructed using a carbon-coated Cu foil as the Li host. Prior to testing, 1× excess Li was also pre-deposited into the Li host of the reference full-cell.

FIG. 47A shows the charge/discharge profile at 0.1 C of the two full-cells. FIG. 47B shows the capacity and CE of the full-cells as a function of the cycling number. The pink line represents the full-cell with the carbonaceous MIEC beehive, and the green line represents the reference full-cell. When compared to the reference full-cell, the full-cell with the carbonaceous MIEC beehive shows a lower overpotential (0.25 V vs 0.45 V), a higher discharge capacity (164 mAh/g vs 123 mAh/g), and a higher CE (99.83% vs 82.22%) at 0.1 C. Furthermore, the full-cell with the carbonaceous MIEC beehive shows little degradation in performance for over 50 cycles with a parsimonious lithium inventory. The full-cell with the carbonaceous MIEC beehive exhibited and average CE of 99.82% and a gravimetric capacity approaching 900 mAh/g (previous all-solid-state batteries yielded a capacity of about 100-300 mAh/g).

FIGS. 48A and 48B further show FESEM images of the carbonaceous MIEC beehive extracted from the full-cell before and after Li plating. As shown, the Li metal was well deposited inside the tubules of the carbonaceous MIEC beehive.

These results show that a practical full-cell device may be constructed using the MIEC 1110 according to theoretically derived design parameters (h=10-100 μm to ensure capacity, W about 100 nm to ensure interfacial Coble creep, w about 10 nm to ensure mechanical robustness, and hermetic soft SE cap for pressurization).

A Third Exemplary Demonstration with a Non-Carbonaceous MIEC Beehive

The MIEC 1110 may be formed from a broad range of materials that are electrochemically stable against the alkali metal 1300. In particular, the MIEC 1110 and the open pore structure 1120 may be configured to transport alkali metal 1300 primarily by an interfacial diffusion mechanism. As described above, this allows for greater flexibility when selecting the material to construct the MIEC 1110 because the electronic and ionic transport properties depend primarily on the structure and dimensions of the open pore structure 1120 rather than the material composition of the MIEC 1110.

To demonstrate the general applicability of the designs and mechanisms described herein, another exemplary MIEC 1110 was fabricated from titanium nitride (TiN). As shown in the equilibrium phase diagram of FIG. 7B, TiN is thermodynamically and electrochemically stable against Li. Thus, when TiN is in naked contact with Li metal, no reactions will occur and no SEI is formed. Additionally, TiN is a mechanically robust material (e.g., TiN is used as anti-wear coatings and drill bits), naturally metallic, and forms an incoherent interface with the Li metal.

A TiN honeycomb MIEC was synthesized by reacting anodized TiO₂ template with ammonia gas as shown in FIG. 49A. The TiN MIEC was fabricated to have the same dimensional parameters as the carbonaceous MIEC beehive described previously (e.g., about 10¹⁰ parallel capped cylinders). FIGS. 49B-49E show various SEM images of an exemplary TiN MIEC. As shown, the MIEC is formed as a closed packed array of TiN tubules in a honeycomb arrangement. The TiN MIEC was found to be mechanically robust. For instance, a cm×cm piece of the MIEC 1110 was readily handled by a user's hands without fracturing. The TiN MIEC also exhibits a hardness up to about 2 GPa based on a nanoindentation test as shown in FIG. 50A. A 1 nm-thick Al₂O₃ (or ZnO) layer was deposited onto the inner-surface of the TiN MIEC beehive using atomic layer deposition (ALD) to enhance the lithiophilicity of the TiN MIEC beehive.

A half-cell 3000 was assembled with the TiN MIEC using a similar architecture to the carbonaceous MIEC previously described. The half-cell 3000 was tested at 55° C. FIG. 50B shows an exemplary Li plating and stripping voltage profile as a function of the capacity. FIG. 50C shows the overpotential and CE at various current densities. FIG. 50D shows the charge/discharge profiles of the Li/SE/TiN MIEC beehive half-cell 3000 as a function of time. The pink line represents the half-cell 3000 with the TiN MIEC. The green line represents a half-cell with a TiN-coated Ti foil as the Li host. As shown, the half-cell 3000 exhibits a lower overpotential (45 mV vs 250 mV for the reference half-cell at 0.125 mA/cm²), a higher Coulombic efficiency (97% vs 65% for the reference half-cell at 0.125 mA/cm²), and greater cycling stability. The half-cell 3000 was also able to cycle a large amount of Li metal with an areal capacity of 1.5 mAh/cm², which is substantially higher than previous all-solid batteries (typically less than 0.5 mAh/cm²).

An all-solid-state full-cell was also assembled using the TiN MIEC. Specifically, the full cell comprised (1× excess) Li predeposited TiN MIEC beehive/SE/LiFePO₄ battery. A 1×excess amount of Li metal was predeposited electrochemically inside the TiN MIEC beehive before the full cell was cycled. FIG. 51A shows an exemplary charge/discharge profile of the full-cell. FIG. 51B shows the cycling life of the full-cell. A reference full-cell was also assembled using TiN-coated Ti foil as the Li host. Compared to the reference full-cell, the full-cell with the TiN MIEC exhibited a lower overpotential (0.17 V vs 0.4 V), a higher discharge capacity (162 mAh/g vs 117 mAh/g), and a higher CE (99.95% vs 85.09%) at 0.1 C. Additionally, the parsimonious excess Li full cell showed almost no degradation and maintained a high average CE up to 99.72% for over 50 cycles. These results show that the design of the MIEC 1110 and the transport mechanisms within the open pore structure 1120 are applicable to a broad range of materials.

FIGS. 52A-52C shows another exemplary MIEC 1110 formed from anodized aluminum oxide (AAO). FIG. 52A shows an image of a cm×cm piece of the AAO MIEC. FIGS. 52B and 52C show SEM images of the open pore structure formed within the AAO MIEC. As shown, the AAO MIEC may be formed with substantially aligned tubules. FIG. 53A shows yet another exemplary MIEC formed from a silicon mesh. FIGS. 53B-53D show the silicon MIEC may have highly aligned tubules arranged in a closed pack array.

MIEC Chemical Compositions

In some implementations, any of the MIECs described above may be formed from various binary, tertiary, or quaternary compound materials having a particular set of properties. These properties include electronic conductivity (>10⁶ S/m), electrochemical stability against the alkali metal, and electrochemical stability against the solid electrolyte. Electrochemical stability of the MIEC against the alkali metal reduces or substantially prevents the MIEC from decomposing to form fresh SEI at the interface between the MIEC and the alkali metal. Electrochemical stability of the MIEC against the solid electrolyte reduces or substantially prevents the MIEC from decomposing to form fresh SEI at the interface between the MIEC and the solid electrolyte. Electrochemical stability may be evaluated based on thermodynamic stability.

The MIEC material may be computationally chosen from a database (e.g., The Materials Project: A materials genome approach to accelerating materials innovation) using the property criteria above. Specifically, a list of binary, tertiary, and quaternary compounds was generated. From this list, to screen for materials that are electronically conductive, any materials having a bandgap smaller than 3 eV were selected. Electrochemical stability of the MIEC against the alkali metal was screened using equilibrium phase diagrams. Materials with an end-member phase directly connected to an alkali metal by a tie-line in an equilibrium phase diagram were selected. Electrochemical stability of the MIEC against the solid electrolyte was screened using equilibrium phase diagrams and/or through experimentation. Materials with an end-member phase directly connected to the solid electrolyte by a tie-line in an equilibrium phase diagram were selected. Electrochemical stability against the solid electrolyte was screened experimentally by measuring the impedance over time of a bilayer of MIEC and solid electrolyte. Any materials having an impedance change over time less than 20% per hour were selected. The resulting list includes MIEC materials that have all three properties.

FIG. 55 shows an example equilibrium phase diagram between MIEC TiFe and the solid electrolyte Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂(LLZO). An electrochemically stable compound is formed when the two compounds are directly connected by a tie-line. As shown, TiFe and LLZO are end-member phases directly connected to each other by a tie-line. Therefore, the MIEC TiFe is electrochemically stable against the solid electrolyte LLZO. For comparison, FIG. 56 shows an equilibrium phase diagram between Li metal and the solid electrolyte LLZO. As shown, Li and LLZO are not directly connected to each other by a tie-line. Instead, there is a lower energy intermediate phase between Li and LLZO, indicating that unstable phases (e.g., Zr₄O, Li₂O, or La₂O₃) may be formed at the interface between Li and LLZO.

In some implementations, the list of MIEC materials is additionally screened to select inexpensive chemical elements. Materials that only include inexpensive chemical elements may be cheaper to produce and may be preferably for large scale production. In one implementation, inexpensive chemical elements may be screened by excluding any lanthanide elements. In another implementation, inexpensive chemical elements may be screened by excluding any rare earth metals. In another implementation, inexpensive chemical elements may be screened by excluding any compounds that include any of the following elements: beryllium, scandium, vanadium, gallium, germanium, krypton, niobium, technetium, ruthenium, palladium, gold, indium, tellurium, xenon, hafnium, tantalum, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, silver, thallium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, terbium, dysprosium, thulium, and lutetium.

The accompanying APPENDICES constitute part of the present disclosure. The APPENDICES 1-3 include lists of MIEC materials that may be used as anodes in lithium, sodium, and potassium-based batteries, respectively. The APPENDICES include the chemical formulas, Materials Project identification number (“Material ID”), bandgaps (eV), density (g/cm³), price (USD), number of atoms in the compound, and price per atom for each of the MIEC materials. Compound price was calculated using prices of each element in in the compound. For example, if the prices of elements A and B are PA and PB, respectively, the price for A₂B₃ is 2×P_(A)+3×P_(B). The price per atom is the compound price divided by the number of atoms in the compound's chemical formula. For example, for the compound A₂B₃, the price per atom is (2×P_(A)+3×P_(B))/(2+3). The price per atom is a way of comparing prices between compounds with different numbers of atoms, since a compound with a fewer number of atoms will likely have a lower compound price, as calculated here, than a compound with a higher number of atoms.

All of the materials in the APPENDICES have an energy above hull equal to zero, indicating thermodynamic stability.

The MIEC material may include an aluminum (Al) alloy. For example, the MIEC material may be formed from aluminum alloyed with nickel, cobalt, iron, molybdenum, or vanadium.

The MIEC material may include a barium (Ba) compound. For example, the MIEC material may be formed from a barium compound including sodium, mercury, lead, boron, carbon, copper, lithium, or strontium.

The MIEC material may include beryllium (Be) or a beryllium compound. For example, the beryllium compound may include carbon or copper.

The MIEC material may include a calcium (Ca) compound. For example, the calcium compound may include gallium, copper, nitrogen, silicon, zinc, boron, beryllium, copper, magnesium, or nickel.

The MIEC material may include cerium (Ce) or a cerium compound. For example, the cerium compound may include carbon, gallium, silicon, aluminum, boron, copper, gallium, nitrogen, or zinc.

The MIEC material may include cobalt (Co) or a cobalt compound. For example, the cobalt compound may include nickel, tungsten, or boron.

The MIEC material may include chromium (Cr) or a chromium compound. For example, the chromium compound may include carbon, boron, silicon, or nickel.

The MIEC material may include cesium (Ce) or a cesium compound. For example, the cesium compound may include carbon.

The MIEC material may include erbium (Er) or an erbium compound. For example, the erbium compound may include aluminum, carbon, gallium, boron, or nitrogen.

The MIEC material may include europium (Eu) or a europium compound. For example, the europium compound may include nitrogen, gallium, silicon, boron, carbon, or mercury.

The MIEC material may include iron (Fe) or an iron compound. For example, the iron compound may include cobalt, boron, cobalt, silicon, boron, or nickel.

The MIEC material may include gadolinium (Ga) or a gadolinium compound. For example, the gadolinium compound may include boron, carbon, indium, aluminum, boron, gallium, or nitrogen.

The MIEC material may include hafnium (Hf) or a hafnium compound. For example, the hafnium compound may include nitrogen or carbon.

The MIEC material may include holmium (Ho) or a holmium compound. For example, the holmium compound may include aluminum, carbon, gallium, or boron.

The MIEC material may include potassium (K) or a potassium compound. For example, the potassium compound may include carbon.

The MIEC material may include lithium (Li) or a lithium compound. For example, the lithium compound may include indium, chromium, nitrogen, lead, tin, silicon, aluminum, calcium, nitrogen, cerium, europium, gallium, gadolinium, tellurium, hafnium, holmium, neodymium, samarium, ytterbium, yttrium, zinc, copper, zirconium, cadmium, mercury, scandium, titanium, molybdenum, manganese, boron, beryllium, cobalt, erbium, magnesium, and/or nickel.

The MIEC material may include a magnesium (Mg) compound. For example, the magnesium compound may include copper or nickel.

The MIEC material may include manganese (Mn) or a manganese compound. For example, the manganese compound may include carbon, boron, chromium, cobalt, niobium, silicon, iron, aluminum, nickel and/or vanadium.

The MIEC material may include molybdenum (Mo) and/or sodium (Na).

The MIEC material may include niobium (Nb) or a niobium compound. For example, the niobium compound may include boron, nitrogen, cobalt, chromium, iron, nickel, vanadium, and/or tungsten.

The MIEC material may include neodymium (Nd) or a neodymium compound. For example, the neodymium compound may include boron, carbon, cobalt, gallium, silicon, aluminum, copper, nitrogen, or zinc.

The MIEC material may include nickel (Ni) or a nickel compound. For example, the nickel compound may include boron, molybdenum, or tungsten.

The MIEC material may include rubidium (Rb) or a rubidium compound. For example, the rubidium compound may include carbon.

The MIEC material may include scandium (Sc) or a scandium compound. For example, the scandium compound may include iron, silicon, aluminum, carbon, cobalt, gallium, indium, boron, copper, nitrogen, and/or zinc.

The MIEC material may include samarium (Sm) or a samarium compound. For example, the samarium compound may include boron, carbon, gallium, silicon, aluminum, boron, copper, or nitrogen.

The MIEC material may include strontium (Sr) or a strontium compound. For example, the strontium compound may include lithium, mercury, cobalt, nitrogen, tellurium, lead, chromium, calcium, silicon, tin, or magnesium.

The MIEC material may include tantalum (Ta) or a tantalum compound. For example, the tantalum compound may include aluminum, beryllium, nitrogen, silicon, or tungsten.

The MIEC material may include titanium (Ti) or a titanium compound. For example, the titanium compound may include manganese, carbon, cobalt, copper, gallium, manganese, iron, nickel, nitrogen, zinc, aluminum, and/or boron.

The MIEC material may include vanadium (V) or a vanadium compound. For example, the vanadium compound may include boron, carbon, chromium, iron, nickel, cobalt, silicon, and/or tungsten.

The MIEC material may include tungsten (W) or a tungsten compound. For example, the tungsten compound may include carbon.

The MIEC material may include yttrium (Y) or an yttrium compound. For example, the yttrium compound may include nickel, carbon, cobalt, gallium, lead, silicon, tin, aluminum, boron, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, zinc, or nitrogen.

The MIEC material may include ytterbium (Yb) or an ytterbium compound. For example, the ytterbium compound may include carbon, gallium, silicon, nitrogen, boron, indium, tellurium, aluminum, copper, or mercury.

The MIEC material may include zirconium (Zr) or a zirconium compound. For example, the zirconium compound may include carbon, copper, beryllium, nitrogen, silicon, iron, scandium, manganese, or nickel.

FIG. 56 shows the relationship between anode thickness and porosity for MIECs with different areal capacities. The graph shows the anode minimum anode thickness needed for a given MIEC porosity and desired areal capacity. The three exemplary areal capacities are 3.4 mAh cm⁻², 4 mAh cm⁻², and 6 mAh cm⁻². The trends show that MIECs with higher porosity can have the desired areal capacities with smaller thickness as compared to MIECS with lower porosity. For example, for an areal capacity of 6 mAh cm⁻², a 150 μm thick MIEC can have 20% porosity or higher. On the other hand, an anode approaching a porosity of 100% can be as thin as 30 μm in thickness. The graph compares the MIEC trends to a graphite anode with a thickness of 67 μm, illustrating that MIECs thinner than 67 μm may have an areal capacity of 6 mAh cm⁻² with porosities of about 45% or higher.

CONCLUSION

While various inventive embodiments have been described and illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision a variety of other means and/or structures for performing the function and/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of the advantages described herein, and each of such variations and/or modifications is deemed to be within the scope of the inventive embodiments described herein. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon the specific application or applications for which the inventive teachings is/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize or be able to ascertain, using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific inventive embodiments described herein. I_(t) is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, inventive embodiments may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. Inventive embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, kit, and/or method described herein. In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included within the inventive scope of the present disclosure.

Also, various inventive concepts may be embodied as one or more methods, of which an example has been provided. The acts performed as part of the method may be ordered in any suitable way. Accordingly, embodiments may be constructed in which acts are performed in an order different than illustrated, which may include performing some acts simultaneously, even though shown as sequential acts in illustrative embodiments.

All definitions, as defined and used herein, should be understood to control over dictionary definitions, definitions in documents incorporated by reference, and/or ordinary meanings of the defined terms.

The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, should be understood to mean “at least one.”

The phrase “and/or,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements so conjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some cases and disjunctively present in other cases. Multiple elements listed with “and/or” should be construed in the same fashion, i.e., “one or more” of the elements so conjoined. Other elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the “and/or” clause, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and/or B”, when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer, in one embodiment, to A only (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to B only (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionally including other elements); etc.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should be understood to have the same meaning as “and/or” as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and/or” shall be interpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, but also including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and, optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated to the contrary, such as “only one of” or “exactly one of,” or, when used in the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or” as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e., “one or the other but not both”) when preceded by terms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or “exactly one of” “Consisting essentially of,” when used in the claims, shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.

As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “at least one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed within the list of elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified within the list of elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “at least one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and/or B”) can refer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including more than one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.

In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitional phrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,” “containing,” “involving,” “holding,” “composed of,” and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of” shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual of Patent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.

Total Material ID Chemical Formula Band Gap Density Price No. Atoms Unit Price mp-16514 Al3Ni5 0 6.717313154 74.87 8 9.36 mp-284 AlCo 0 6.136768975 34.59 2 17.29 mp-2658 AlFe 0 5.791723495 2.214 2 1.11 mp-1183162 AlFe3 0 6.647849573 3.062 4 0.77 mp-259 AlMo3 0 8.470007673 122.09 4 30.52 mp-1487 AlNi 0 5.906844592 15.69 2 7.85 mp-2593 AlNi3 0 7.466731653 43.49 4 10.87 mp-1387 AlV3 0 5.367846693 1156.79 4 289.2 mp-569025 Bal9Na29Li13 0.0147 2.190395396 1217.495 61 19.96 mp-8094 Ba2Hg 0 5.677447644 30.75 3 10.25 mp-21246 Ba2Pb 0.0383 5.787075882 2.55 3 0.85 mp-954 BaB6 0.0623 4.281989038 22.355 7 3.19 mp-1214417 BaC6 0 3.961948599 1.007 7 0.14 mp-30428 BaCu 0 4.510555041 6.275 2 3.14 mp-210 BaLi4 0 1.84849371 342.675 5 68.53 mp-1227650 BaSr4 0 2.867111399 26.995 5 5.4 mp-87 Be 0 1.895724397 857 1 857 mp-1569 Be2C 1.4433 2.461261614 1714.122 3 571.37 mp-2031 Be2Cu 0 5.046496677 1720 3 573.33 mp-1227357 Be3Cu 0 4.407823439 2577 4 644.25 mp-568793 Ca28Ga11 0 2.585516676 1693.8 39 43.43 mp-12614 Ca2Cu 0 2.62950025 10.7 3 3.57 mp-2686 Ca2N 0 2.161682878 4.84 3 1.61 mp-2517 Ca2Si 0.2915 2.165187656 6.4 3 2.13 mp-2786 Ca5Zn3 0 2.763436877 19.4 8 2.42 mp-1213975 CaB4 0 2.631299144 17.07 5 3.41 mp-865 CaB6 0.1835 2.437995559 24.43 7 3.49 mp-1845 CaBe13 0 1.9473521 11143.35 14 795.95 mp-585949 CaCu 0 3.622394066 8.35 2 4.17 mp-1882 CaCu5 0 6.536938774 32.35 6 5.39 mp-2432 CaMg2 0 1.731927308 6.99 3 2.33 mp-2295 CaNi2 0 5.661732669 30.15 3 10.05 mp-774 CaNi5 0 6.747575602 71.85 6 11.97 mp-567332 Ce 0 8.91786665 4.71 1 4.71 mp-20181 Ce2C3 0 7.074733812 9.786 5 1.96 mp-19920 Ce3Ga 0 8.078079142 162.13 4 40.53 mp-570175 Ce5Si3 0 6.736034132 28.65 8 3.58 mp-2088 CeAl2 0 5.124395241 8.29 3 2.76 mp-1974 CeB4 0 5.80804567 19.43 5 3.89 mp-2801 CeCu2 0 8.065457036 16.71 3 5.57 mp-581942 CeCu6 0 8.455393218 40.71 7 5.82 mp-1018276 CeGa 0 6.849881989 152.71 2 76.36 mp-2493 CeN 0 7.942475673 4.85 2 2.42 mp-1385 CeZn2 0 7.159182995 9.81 3 3.27 mp-54 Co 0 8.959676195 32.8 1 32.8 mp-1183837 Co3Ni 0 9.020551201 112.3 4 28.07 mp-2157 Co3W 0 12.92411922 133.7 4 33.42 mp-20857 CoB 0 7.456589549 36.48 2 18.24 mp-90 Cr 0 7.274080971 9.4 1 9.4 mp-723 Cr23C6 0 7.16779993 216.932 29 7.48 mp-569424 Cr2B 0 6.745889607 22.48 3 7.49 mp-20937 Cr3C2 0 6.795180146 28.444 5 5.69 mp-729 Cr3Si 0 6.625100709 29.9 4 7.48 mp-15617 Cr5B3 0 6.587365994 58.04 8 7.25 mp-1196316 Cr7C3 0 7.055496191 66.166 10 6.62 mp-1080664 CrB 0 6.267642518 13.08 2 6.54 mp-784631 CrNi2 0 8.620907303 37.2 3 12.4 mp-1184151 Cs 0.1362 1.885761278 61800 1 61800 mp-28861 CsC8 0 2.893417416 61800.976 9 6866.78 mp-1184115 Er 0 9.037772387 26.4 1 26.4 mp-1102875 Er2Al 0 7.795030975 54.59 3 18.2 mp-1225044 Er2C 0 8.678709228 52.922 3 17.64 mp-1203719 Er3C4 0 8.934402703 79.688 7 11.38 mp-1198546 Er3Ga2 0 8.725322058 375.2 5 75.04 mp-1212833 Er4C7 0 8.047974214 106.454 11 9.68 mp-1188739 ErAl 0 7.003065103 28.19 2 14.09 mp-1208 ErAl2 0 6.140750389 29.98 3 9.99 mp-1774 ErB2 0 8.881021436 33.76 3 11.25 mp-2847 ErB4 0 6.998729948 41.12 5 8.22 mp-1018077 ErGa 0 8.420288617 174.4 2 87.2 mp-19830 ErN 0.2716 10.56582866 26.54 2 13.27 mp-1057315 Eu 0 6.086594594 31.4 1 31.4 mp-1212961 Eu2N 0 7.081393454 62.94 3 20.98 mp-672286 Eu3Ga2 0 6.8305628 390.2 5 78.04 mp-1190061 Eu5Si3 0 6.153676988 162.1 8 20.26 mp-20874 EuB6 0 4.963690743 53.48 7 7.64 mp-1103990 EuC6 0 4.7983116 32.132 7 4.59 mp-11375 EuHg 0 9.836400238 61.6 2 30.8 mp-13 Fe 0 8.096264696 0.424 1 0.42 mp-601848 Fe11Co5 0 8.108531664 168.664 16 10.54 mp-1915 Fe2B 0 7.490316494 4.528 3 1.51 mp-601820 Fe3Co 0 8.136129184 34.072 4 8.52 mp-2199 Fe3Si 0 7.388613931 2.972 4 0.74 mp-601842 Fe9Co7 0 8.206826997 233.416 16 14.59 mp-1080525 FeB 0 6.887696687 4.104 2 2.05 mp-2090 FeCo 0 8.290362741 33.224 2 16.61 mp-2213 FeNi 0 8.452470899 14.324 2 7.16 mp-1418 FeNi3 0 8.700535754 42.124 4 10.53 mp-155 Gd 0 8.001978666 28.6 1 28.6 mp-28366 Gd2B5 0 6.836473994 75.6 7 10.8 mp-1224869 Gd2C 0 7.676989498 57.322 3 19.11 mp-1189998 Gd2C3 0 7.992746631 57.566 5 11.51 mp-1184479 Gd3In 0 8.319657649 252.8 4 63.2 mp-1078585 GdAl 0 6.301011344 30.39 2 15.2 mp-19923 GdAl2 0 5.660330479 32.18 3 10.73 mp-1105563 GdB4 0 6.464597962 43.32 5 8.66 mp-20353 GdGa 0 7.531847056 176.6 2 88.3 mp-940 GdN 0 9.164612692 28.74 2 14.37 mp-103 Hf 0 13.1832226 900 1 900 mp-864647 Hf2N 0 13.23693362 1800.14 3 600.05 mp-1224388 Hf3N2 0 13.38748853 2700.28 5 540.06 mp-21075 HfC 0 12.57416771 900.122 2 450.06 mp-2828 HfN 0 13.68399725 900.14 2 450.07 mp-10659 Ho 0 8.822554243 57.1 1 57.1 mp-16502 Ho2Al 0 7.595654792 115.99 3 38.66 mp-1640 Ho2C 0 8.412835248 114.322 3 38.11 mp-1202754 Ho3C4 0 8.700157642 171.788 7 24.54 mp-1197194 Ho3Ga2 0 8.474139572 467.3 5 93.46 mp-15238 Ho4C5 0 8.4097617 229.01 9 25.45 mp-1154 Ho4C7 0.5867 7.857241425 229.254 11 20.84 mp-1188420 HoAl 0 6.849503074 58.89 2 29.45 mp-391 HoAl2 0 6.026340563 60.68 3 20.23 mp-2267 HoB2 0 8.64241442 64.46 3 21.49 mp-569281 HoB4 0 6.870160089 71.82 5 14.36 mp-1018073 HoGa 0 8.171440104 205.1 2 102.55 mp-1184905 K 0 0.868387443 13.6 1 13.6 mp-28930 KC8 0 1.94998649 14.576 9 1.62 mp-1018134 Li 0 0.57309457 85.6 1 85.6 mp-510430 Li13In3 0 2.471080344 1613.8 16 100.86 mp-530262 Li15Cr2N9 1.3186 2.264412819 1304.06 26 50.16 mp-574275 Li17Pb4 0 3.961250168 1463.2 21 69.68 mp-573471 Li17Sn4 0 2.589548849 1530 21 72.86 mp-29720 Li21Si5 0 1.194591756 1806.1 26 69.47 mp-1210753 Li2Al 0 1.381340819 172.99 3 57.66 mp-570466 Li2Ca 0 1.083251032 173.55 3 57.85 mp-865892 Li2CaPb 0 4.99870701 175.55 4 43.89 mp-865964 Li2CaSn 0 3.437484923 192.25 4 48.06 mp-8181 Li2CeN2 1.2874 4.945453705 176.19 5 35.24 mp-867474 Li2EuSn 0 5.218903259 221.3 4 55.32 mp-29210 Li2Ga 0 2.981136533 319.2 3 106.4 mp-865483 Li2GdIn 0 5.813516989 366.8 4 91.7 mp-865349 Li2GdTl 0 7.399440183 4399.8 4 1099.95 mp-1097065 Li2HfN2 1.9339 7.258069278 1071.48 5 214.3 mp-865622 Li2HoIn 0 6.080581177 395.3 4 98.82 mp-571109 Li2Nd2Si3 0 4.610515699 291.3 7 41.61 mp-866181 Li2NdIn 0 5.26976998 395.7 4 98.92 mp-866179 Li2NdTl 0 6.985206985 4428.7 4 1107.17 mp-865882 Li2SmIn 0 5.493008058 352.1 4 88.03 mp-866200 Li2SmTl 0 7.290083353 4385.1 4 1096.28 mp-866180 Li2YbPb 0 7.62836771 190.3 4 47.57 mp-866191 Li2YbSi 0 5.138016993 190 4 47.5 mp-866192 Li2YbSn 0 6.162863309 207 4 51.75 mp-1185233 Li2YIn 0 4.476946026 369.2 4 92.3 mp-865867 Li2YTl 0 6.296269637 4402.2 4 1100.55 mp-1222617 Li2ZnCu3 0 5.201276115 191.75 6 31.96 mp-3216 Li2ZrN2 1.6072 4.272989517 208.58 5 41.72 mp-13944 Li3AlN2 2.9373 2.334211251 258.87 6 43.14 mp-867343 Li3Cd 0 2.969003856 259.53 4 64.88 mp-1646 Li3Hg 0 5.233841055 287 4 71.75 mp-1094591 Li3Mg 0 0.919301997 259.12 4 64.78 mp-2251 Li3N 0.9986 1.288608955 256.94 4 64.23 mp-542435 Li3ScN2 2.2441 2.445093005 3717.08 6 619.51 mp-7396 Li3Tl 0 5.009351079 4456.8 4 1114.2 mp-1029592 Li3YN2 2.119 3.139913994 288.08 6 48.01 mp-567219 Li4Ca3(SiN3)2 2.3729 2.81096793 353.69 15 23.58 mp-686208 Li5SiN3 2.1599 2.190394385 430.12 9 47.79 mp-686129 Li5TiN3 1.5626 2.368619669 440.12 9 48.9 mp-1197580 Li6Ca17Hg9 0 4.365574053 825.35 32 25.79 mp-8804 Li6MoN4 2.6302 2.904801508 554.26 11 50.39 mp-1211433 Li6Yb17Hg9 0 8.55124306 1076.1 32 33.63 mp-5515 Li7MnN4 0.6562 2.411213393 601.58 12 50.13 mp-862318 LiAl2Ni 0 3.917294341 103.08 4 25.77 mp-867272 LiAlCu2 0 5.265673911 99.39 4 24.85 mp-867812 LiAlNi2 0 5.466499909 115.19 4 28.8 mp-1001835 LiB 0 1.356921364 89.28 2 44.64 mp-9244 LiBC 1.1272 2.15144616 89.402 3 29.8 mp-1018783 LiBeB 0 1.419715181 946.28 3 315.43 mp-29463 LiBeN 2.6955 1.928563009 942.74 3 314.25 mp-1021323 LiC12 0 2.019463894 87.064 13 6.7 mp-862632 LiCa2Al 0 1.724526216 92.09 4 23.02 mp-867805 LiCa2Ga 0 2.481138243 238.3 4 59.58 mp-867211 LiCa2In 0 2.904955219 257.3 4 64.33 mp-867167 LiCa2Tl 0 4.179821486 4290.3 4 1072.58 mp-6799 LiCa4(BN2)3 2.2792 2.595016582 106.88 14 7.63 mp-1020031 LiCaAlN2 2.7906 2.909897562 90.02 5 18 mp-31468 LiCaN 1.3816 2.335579398 88.09 3 29.36 mp-867293 LiCo2Si 0 6.177891606 152.9 4 38.22 mp-862658 LiCu3 0 6.929195303 103.6 4 25.9 mp-984635 LiErSn 0 7.092056446 130.7 3 43.57 mp-1097959 LiEu4(BN2)3 0 6.087092205 223.08 14 15.93 mp-867197 LiGaNi2 0 6.993255153 261.4 4 65.35 mp-1185392 LiGd2Al 0 5.827301916 144.59 4 36.15 mp-1185394 LiGd2Ga 0 6.702072283 290.8 4 72.7 mp-1191877 LiGdSn 0 6.511111198 132.9 3 44.3 mp-1192002 LiHoSn 0.0064 6.978275183 161.4 3 53.8 mp-37906 LiMgN 2.2707 2.387696644 88.06 3 29.35 mp-1191015 LiNdSn 0.0033 5.906106429 161.8 3 53.93 mp-10181 LiSiNi2 0 5.957779615 115.1 4 28.77 mp-1190768 LiSmSn 0 6.237720383 118.2 3 39.4 mp-862555 LiY2Al 0 3.595054674 149.39 4 37.35 mp-864769 LiYb2Tl 0 8.131782807 4319.8 4 1079.95 mp-14208 LiYSi 0 3.416483679 118.3 3 39.43 mp-504790 LiYSn 0 5.088427374 135.3 3 45.1 mp-1934 LiZn 0 4.082778098 88.15 2 44.07 mp-867252 LiZn2Ni 0 6.431958586 104.6 4 26.15 mp-1185421 LiZnNi2 0 6.737390407 115.95 4 28.99 mp-1038 MgCu2 0 5.816113247 14.32 3 4.77 mp-2675 MgNi2 0 6.032501485 30.12 3 10.04 mp-35 Mn 0 8.265241283 1.82 1 1.82 mp-542830 Mn23C6 0 7.843043604 42.592 29 1.47 mp-20318 Mn2B 0 7.609817023 7.32 3 2.44 mp-864955 Mn2CrCo 0 7.716185888 45.84 4 11.46 mp-12659 Mn2Nb 0 8.479514449 89.24 3 29.75 mp-10118 Mn3B4 0 6.153079405 20.18 7 2.88 mp-1185970 Mn3Co 0 8.77177245 38.26 4 9.56 mp-20211 Mn3Si 0 7.078772648 7.16 4 1.79 mp-21256 Mn7C3 0 7.858680097 13.106 10 1.31 mp-771 MnAl 0 5.127964867 3.61 2 1.81 mp-5529 MnFe2Si 0 7.393942888 4.368 4 1.09 mp-11501 MnNi3 0 8.49819932 43.52 4 10.88 mp-316 MnV 0 7.40626179 386.82 2 193.41 mp-864953 MnV2Cr 0 7.151615215 781.22 4 195.31 mp-864984 MnV3 0 6.851730115 1156.82 4 289.2 mp-129 Mo 0 10.02490812 40.1 1 40.1 mp-10172 Na 0 1.028520018 3.43 1 3.43 mp-75 Nb 0 8.427646884 85.6 1 85.6 mp-1080021 Nb2B3 0 7.075689381 182.24 5 36.45 mp-1079585 Nb2N 0 8.022840826 171.34 3 57.11 mp-20689 Nb3B2 0 7.752632878 264.16 5 52.83 mp-10255 Nb3B4 0 7.190484651 271.52 7 38.79 mp-7250 Nb6Co7 0 8.885808577 743.2 13 57.17 mp-2580 NbB 0 7.429359441 89.28 2 44.64 mp-450 NbB2 0 6.793798027 92.96 3 30.99 mp-977426 NbCo3 0 9.188007818 184 4 46 mp-548 NbCr2 0 7.767773551 104.4 3 34.8 mp-1221111 NbFe 0 8.52821509 86.024 2 43.01 mp-1192350 NbFe2 0 8.803120472 86.448 3 28.82 mp-1220799 NbNi 0 8.842814701 99.5 2 49.75 mp-1451 NbNi3 0 8.950269576 127.3 4 31.82 mp-1220522 NbVCo 0 8.073557923 503.4 3 167.8 mp-1220374 NbVCr 0 7.38520832 480 3 160 mp-1220599 NbVNi 0 7.996372687 484.5 3 161.5 mp-1220316 NbW 0 13.43138832 120.9 2 60.45 mp-123 Nd 0 6.758696201 57.5 1 57.5 mp-567415 Nd2B5 0 5.945180936 133.4 7 19.06 mp-1800 Nd2C3 0 6.738088162 115.366 5 23.07 mp-356 Nd2Co17 0 8.660874962 672.6 19 35.4 mp-1084826 Nd2Co3 0 8.309643274 213.4 5 42.68 mp-1106011 Nd3Co 0 7.282343973 205.3 4 51.33 mp-1203103 Nd3Ga2 0 6.751687929 468.5 5 93.7 mp-1104652 Nd5Co2 0 7.325776628 353.1 7 50.44 mp-567735 Nd5Si3 0 6.280952658 292.6 8 36.58 mp-355 Nd5Si4 0 5.868754711 294.3 9 32.7 mp-864637 NdAl 0 5.570964592 59.29 2 29.64 mp-400 NdAl2 0 5.0585345 61.08 3 20.36 mp-1632 NdB4 0 5.768965554 72.22 5 14.44 mp-13392 NdCu 0 7.323929471 63.5 2 31.75 mp-11852 NdCu2 0 7.992310976 69.5 3 23.17 mp-1140 NdCu5 0 8.263727547 87.5 6 14.58 mp-1448 NdGa 0 6.683010873 205.5 2 102.75 mp-2524 NdGa2 0 6.886526887 353.5 3 117.83 mp-2599 NdN 0.4304 7.627429946 57.64 2 28.82 mp-9967 NdSi 0 5.927845124 59.2 2 29.6 mp-1053 NdZn 0 6.949623598 60.05 2 30.02 mp-30800 NdZn2 0 7.028659264 62.6 3 20.87 mp-23 Ni 0 9.047689544 13.9 1 13.9 mp-2536 Ni2B 0 8.10839559 31.48 3 10.49 mp-2058 Ni3B 0 8.260441597 45.38 4 11.35 mp-11506 Ni3Mo 0 9.512797164 81.8 4 20.45 mp-11507 Ni4Mo 0 9.438041633 95.7 5 19.14 mp-30811 Ni4W 0 11.89007194 90.9 5 18.18 mp-1179656 Rb 0 1.572308149 15500 1 15500 mp-568643 RbC8 0 2.448462356 15500.976 9 1722.33 mp-67 Sc 0 3.023050896 3460 1 3460 mp-505554 Sc(FeSi)2 0 5.391728323 3464.248 5 692.85 mp-11220 Sc2Al 0 3.024174766 6921.79 3 2307.26 mp-29941 Sc2C 0 3.118296979 6920.122 3 2306.71 mp-3618 Sc2FeSi2 0 4.124423954 6923.824 5 1384.76 mp-685209 Sc39N34 0 4.065969645 134944.76 73 1848.56 mp-862259 Sc3Al 0 3.083513198 10381.79 4 2595.45 mp-28733 Sc3C4 0 3.561973189 10380.488 7 1482.93 mp-27162 Sc3Co 0 3.959797526 10412.8 4 2603.2 mp-4755 Sc3Fe2Si3 0 4.348194174 10385.948 8 1298.24 mp-30666 Sc3Ga2 0 4.417556977 10676 5 2135.2 mp-19713 Sc3In 0 4.443026391 10547 4 2636.75 mp-15661 Sc4C3 0.4656 3.799358905 13840.366 7 1977.2 mp-7822 Sc5Si3 0 3.252082867 17305.1 8 2163.14 mp-331 ScAl 0 3.099620451 3461.79 2 1730.89 mp-813 ScAl2 0 3.00975007 3463.58 3 1154.53 mp-2252 ScB2 0 3.660544064 3467.36 3 1155.79 mp-2212 ScCo 0 5.682768497 3492.8 2 1746.4 mp-253 ScCo2 0 6.582231542 3525.6 3 1175.2 mp-1169 ScCu 0 5.222540494 3466 2 1733 mp-1018149 ScCu2 0 6.252104019 3472 3 1157.33 mp-1095443 ScFe2 0 6.089662863 3460.848 3 1153.62 mp-22701 ScFeSi 0 4.848691618 3462.124 3 1154.04 mp-2857 ScN 0.325 4.245782373 3460.14 2 1730.07 mp-11566 ScZn 0 4.846371151 3462.55 2 1731.28 mp-86 Sm 0 7.336111094 13.9 1 13.9 mp-570421 Sm2B5 0 6.38117091 46.2 7 6.6 mp-1219177 Sm2C 0 6.96379353 27.922 3 9.31 mp-569335 Sm2C3 0 7.342820428 28.166 5 5.63 mp-1195872 Sm3Ga2 0 7.290128233 337.7 5 67.54 mp-1106373 Sm5Si3 0 6.518409369 74.6 8 9.32 mp-978951 SmAl 0 5.946082179 15.69 2 7.85 mp-2358 SmAl2 0 5.345095455 17.48 3 5.83 mp-8546 SmB4 0 6.100418512 28.62 5 5.72 mp-980769 SmCu 0 7.954064255 19.9 2 9.95 mp-1077154 SmCu2 0 8.113356985 25.9 3 8.63 mp-227 SmCu5 0 8.498335586 43.9 6 7.32 mp-477 SmGa2 0 7.243944997 309.9 3 103.3 mp-749 SmN 0.0215 8.356280164 14.04 2 7.02 mp-1025489 SmSi 0 6.372031659 15.6 2 7.8 mp-1187073 Sr 0 2.676562284 6.68 1 6.68 mp-866669 Sr17(Li2Hg3)3 0 4.786163431 898.96 32 28.09 mp-569001 Sr2LiCoN2 0.2622 4.10702732 132.04 6 22.01 mp-862746 Sr2LiTl 0 4.61772008 4298.96 4 1074.74 mp-1245 Sr2N 0 3.493077187 13.5 3 4.5 mp-30828 Sr2Pb 0.0363 5.3028318 15.36 3 5.12 mp-12906 Sr3CrN3 0 4.25248097 29.86 7 4.27 mp-568322 Sr3Li3(NiN)4 0 3.967801457 333 14 23.79 mp-9723 Sr4Li(BN2)3 2.603 3.740877325 124.2 14 8.87 mp-242 SrB6 0.035 3.417060889 28.76 7 4.11 mp-2080 SrBe13 0 2.424044218 11147.68 14 796.26 mp-1208630 SrC6 0 3.270211156 7.412 7 1.06 mp-7084 SrCaSi 0.4225 2.831609127 10.73 3 3.58 mp-1025402 SrCu 0 4.000956388 12.68 2 6.34 mp-867174 SrLi2Pb 0 5.32533621 179.88 4 44.97 mp-867171 SrLi2Sn 0 3.93559603 196.58 4 49.14 mp-15845 SrLi4N2 0.9413 2.399527683 349.36 7 49.91 mp-1187198 SrMg2 0 2.399508735 11.32 3 3.77 mp-50 Ta 0 16.38780395 312 1 312 mp-1193531 Ta2Al 0 12.51251642 625.79 3 208.6 mp-11278 Ta2Be 0 13.76091757 1481 3 493.67 mp-1189402 Ta2Be17 0 5.097220738 15193 19 799.63 mp-1079438 Ta2N 0 15.39304112 624.14 3 208.05 mp-1078957 Ta3Be2 0 13.0790515 2650 5 530 mp-568646 Ta3Si 0 13.88613422 937.7 4 234.43 mp-1187206 Ta3W 0 17.11634231 971.3 4 242.82 mp-1989 Ta5Si3 0 12.7874257 1565.1 8 195.64 mp-567842 TaBe12 0 4.277046508 10596 13 815.08 mp-1102049 TaBe3 0 8.223856335 2883 4 720.75 mp-1217811 TaW 0 17.65981087 347.3 2 173.65 mp-979289 TaW3 0 18.29084553 417.9 4 104.47 mp-72 Ti 0 4.64683663 11.7 1 11.7 mp-1202079 Ti21Mn25 0 6.379828993 291.2 46 6.33 mp-10721 Ti2C 0 4.43976924 23.522 3 7.84 mp-1191331 Ti2Co 0 5.816331995 56.2 3 18.73 mp-742 Ti2Cu 0 5.722180363 29.4 3 9.8 mp-30671 Ti2Ga 0 5.649651788 171.4 3 57.13 mp-863690 Ti2MnCo 0 6.64951189 58.02 4 14.5 mp-861983 Ti2MnFe 0 6.549536628 25.644 4 6.41 mp-865712 Ti2MnNi 0 6.578268698 39.12 4 9.78 mp-8282 Ti2N 0 4.881545292 23.54 3 7.85 mp-1808 Ti2Ni 0 5.725014052 37.3 3 12.43 mp-1014229 Ti2Zn 0 5.462441931 25.95 3 8.65 mp-1823 Ti3Al 0 4.248868625 36.89 4 9.22 mp-1025170 Ti3B4 0 4.557547557 49.82 7 7.12 mp-2643 Ti3Cu4 0 6.748300444 59.1 7 8.44 mp-30672 Ti3Ga 0 5.416551144 183.1 4 45.77 mp-1217247 Ti4CoNi 0 5.790096873 93.5 6 15.58 mp-1217201 Ti4Mn5V3 0 6.366540898 1210.9 12 100.91 mp-2108 Ti5Si3 0 4.347039406 63.6 8 7.95 mp-27919 Ti8C5 0 4.54143797 94.21 13 7.25 mp-1217065 Ti8Cu3Ni 0 5.757515978 125.5 12 10.46 mp-1953 TiAl 0 3.833901613 13.49 2 6.74 mp-7857 TiB 0 4.575880615 15.38 2 7.69 mp-1145 TiB2 0 4.487425163 19.06 3 6.35 mp-631 TiC 0 4.879907059 11.822 2 5.91 mp-823 TiCo 0 6.714495322 44.5 2 22.25 mp-608 TiCo3 0 7.948540457 110.1 4 27.52 mp-568636 TiCr2 0 6.234565538 30.5 3 10.17 mp-2078 TiCu 0 6.440936363 17.7 2 8.85 mp-12546 TiCu3 0 7.648117875 29.7 4 7.42 mp-1216850 TiCuNi 0 7.255741497 31.6 3 10.53 mp-305 TiFe 0 6.642034602 12.124 2 6.06 mp-866141 TiFe2Si 0.4023 6.758127762 14.248 4 3.56 mp-1949 TiMn2 0 6.901373985 15.34 3 5.11 mp-865652 TiMn2Si 0 6.352313333 17.04 4 4.26 mp-865678 TiMn2V 0 6.93063331 400.34 4 100.08 mp-865656 TiMn2W 0 10.69468704 50.64 4 12.66 mp-865537 TiMnCo2 0 7.350147653 79.12 4 19.78 mp-1216946 TiMnCr 0 6.555149755 22.92 3 7.64 mp-492 TiN 0 5.340297483 11.84 2 5.92 mp-1216666 TiNbCr4 0 7.031469819 134.9 6 22.48 mp-1048 TiNi 0 6.412985726 25.6 2 12.8 mp-1409 TiNi3 0 7.958129861 53.4 4 13.35 mp-1216621 TiW 0 11.85552569 47 2 23.5 mp-146 V 0 6.312904043 385 1 385 mp-9208 V2B3 0 5.360224268 781.04 5 156.21 mp-20648 V2C 0 5.741137786 770.122 3 256.71 mp-865490 V2CrFe 0 7.348434541 779.824 4 194.96 mp-33090 V2N 0 6.096388132 770.14 3 256.71 mp-2091 V3B2 0 5.846064712 1162.36 5 232.47 mp-569270 V3B4 0 5.426880995 1169.72 7 167.1 mp-1585 V3Co 0 6.985026991 1187.8 4 296.95 mp-1187695 V3Cr 0 6.599355542 1164.4 4 291.1 mp-1079399 V3Fe 0 6.896938402 1155.424 4 288.86 mp-7226 V3Ni 0 6.898754916 1168.9 4 292.23 mp-1216708 V3Ni2 0 7.272789251 1182.8 5 236.56 mp-2567 V3Si 0 5.77814219 1156.7 4 289.18 mp-1206441 V5B6 0 5.503664211 1947.08 11 177.01 mp-568671 V5Si3 0 5.379232288 1930.1 8 241.26 mp-10126 V5SiB2 0 5.621737698 1934.06 8 241.76 mp-28731 V6C5 0 5.617822598 2310.61 11 210.06 mp-1216443 V6FeNi 0 6.865814535 2324.324 8 290.54 mp-1188283 V8N 0 6.188837954 3080.14 9 342.24 mp-9973 VB 0 5.631694261 388.68 2 194.34 mp-1491 VB2 0 5.10857069 392.36 3 130.79 mp-542614 VCo3 0 8.706330003 483.4 4 120.85 mp-1216394 VCr 0 6.919500541 394.4 2 197.2 mp-1187696 VCr3 0 7.195388401 413.2 4 103.3 mp-866134 VFe3 0 7.739814966 386.272 4 96.57 mp-11531 VNi2 0 8.166036424 412.8 3 137.6 mp-171 VNi3 0 8.437749253 426.7 4 106.67 mp-1216231 VW 0 13.07376045 420.3 2 210.15 mp-1187702 VW3 0 16.12824395 490.9 4 122.72 mp-91 W 0 18.85400756 35.3 1 35.3 mp-1894 WC 0 15.3503693 35.422 2 17.71 mp-1187739 Y 0 4.547349703 31 1 31 mp-1200338 Y15Ni32 0 7.163935221 909.8 47 19.36 mp-1334 Y2C 0 4.535817916 62.122 3 20.71 mp-574339 Y2Ni7 0 7.692491082 159.3 9 17.7 mp-1200613 Y3C4 0 4.91444971 93.488 7 13.36 mp-1105598 Y3Co 0 5.148898384 125.8 4 31.45 mp-1204352 Y3Ga2 0 5.289220334 389 5 77.8 mp-1105633 Y3Ni 0 5.094566393 106.9 4 26.73 mp-582134 Y3Ni2 0 5.562940279 120.8 5 24.16 mp-9459 Y4C5 0 4.729248328 124.61 9 13.85 mp-1200885 Y4C7 0.6144 4.541710694 124.854 11 11.35 mp-1188292 Y5Pb3 0 7.410237154 161 8 20.12 mp-2538 Y5Si3 0 4.43624154 160.1 8 20.01 mp-567412 Y5Sn3 0 5.778885589 211.1 8 26.39 mp-2322 YAl2 0 3.879200231 34.58 3 11.53 mp-972364 Yb 0 7.00586663 17.1 1 17.1 mp-1542 YB2 0 5.045298476 38.36 3 12.79 mp-9546 Yb2C3 0 8.726729992 34.566 5 6.91 mp-1102309 Yb2Ga 0 8.278283684 182.2 3 60.73 mp-1207599 Yb2Si 0.0437 7.742296269 35.9 3 11.97 mp-864675 Yb3N2 0.4892 10.30057431 51.58 5 10.32 mp-637 YB4 0 4.30848155 45.72 5 9.14 mp-680653 Yb8In3 0 8.040724614 637.8 11 57.98 mp-570438 Yb8Tl3 0 9.225045302 12736.8 11 1157.89 mp-969 YbAl2 0 5.949727005 20.68 3 6.89 mp-1189298 YbB4 0 6.949843493 31.82 5 6.36 mp-419 YbB6 0.1059 5.614593733 39.18 7 5.6 mp-1103975 YbC6 0 5.687258796 17.832 7 2.55 mp-1857 YbCd 0 8.562931183 19.83 2 9.92 mp-1937 YbCu 0 9.051707971 23.1 2 11.55 mp-567538 YbCu2 0 9.550793637 29.1 3 9.7 mp-1607 YbCu5 0 9.333348732 47.1 6 7.85 mp-396 YbGa 0 8.564556702 165.1 2 82.55 mp-2545 YbHg 0 11.72288518 47.3 2 23.65 mp-865373 YCo 0 5.420377438 63.8 2 31.9 mp-1294 YCo2 0 7.581892784 96.6 3 32.2 mp-1080443 YCu 0 5.830094464 37 2 18.5 mp-2698 YCu2 0 6.706395025 43 3 14.33 mp-2797 YCu5 0 7.535186104 61 6 10.17 mp-1570 YFe2 0 6.872989898 31.848 3 10.62 mp-11385 YFe5 0 7.107153348 33.12 6 5.52 mp-11420 YGa 0 5.438626464 179 2 89.5 mp-615 YMg 0 3.419333592 33.32 2 16.66 mp-22508 YMn12 0 7.697063754 52.84 13 4.06 mp-2114 YN 0.2858 5.742757452 31.14 2 15.57 mp-1364 YNi 0 6.05878909 44.9 2 22.45 mp-569196 YNi3 0 7.60099949 72.7 4 18.18 mp-2152 YNi5 0 7.801971483 100.5 6 16.75 mp-2516 YZn 0 5.55941478 33.55 2 16.77 mp-131 Zr 0 6.4460921 37.1 1 37.1 mp-684623 Zr10C9 0 6.396416519 372.098 19 19.58 mp-1216441 Zr14Cu51 0 8.184391095 825.4 65 12.7 mp-2544 Zr2Be17 0 3.115805578 14643.2 19 770.69 mp-193 Zr2Cu 0 6.968518148 80.2 3 26.73 mp-1014265 Zr2N 0 6.644608678 74.34 3 24.78 mp-1278 Zr2Si 0 5.972090741 75.9 3 25.3 mp-31205 Zr3Fe 0 6.808804543 111.724 4 27.93 mp-1188062 Zr3Sc 0 5.604938366 3571.3 4 892.83 mp-1207024 Zr3Si2 0 5.812221304 114.7 5 22.94 mp-582924 Zr6Fe23 0 7.603506886 232.352 29 8.01 mp-1188077 Zr7Cu10 0 7.760947992 319.7 17 18.81 mp-30445 ZrBe13 0 2.771775575 11178.1 14 798.44 mp-11283 ZrBe5 0 3.623393534 4322.1 6 720.35 mp-2795 ZrC 0 6.50296405 37.222 2 18.61 mp-903 ZrCr2 0 7.10910703 55.9 3 18.63 mp-1190681 ZrFe2 0 7.66641483 37.948 3 12.65 mp-2116 ZrMn2 0 7.670876059 40.74 3 13.58 mp-1352 ZrN 0 7.098978293 37.24 2 18.62 mp-1077791 ZrSc2 0 4.15936576 6957.1 3 2319.03 mp-893 ZrSi 0 5.562650989 38.8 2 19.4 mp-134 Al 0 2.72005 1.79 1 1.79 mp-3805 Al(FeB)2 0 5.791994 9.998 5 2 mp-29110 Al2(FeSi)3 0.2303 5.163781 9.952 8 1.24 mp-568153 Al22Mo5 0 4.244949 239.88 27 8.88 mp-985806 Al2Cu 0 4.064939 9.58 3 3.19 mp-867780 Al3Cr 0 3.815306 14.77 4 3.69 mp-1190708 Al3Fe2Si 0 4.725578 7.918 6 1.32 mp-622209 Al3Ni 0 4.034332 19.27 4 4.82 mp-1057 Al3Ni2 0 4.767799 33.17 5 6.63 mp-16514 Al3Ni5 0 6.717313 74.87 8 9.36 mp-2554 Al3V 0 3.714657 390.37 4 97.59 mp-31019 Al45Cr7 0 3.226501 146.35 52 2.81 mp-1591 Al4C3 1.3422 2.930804 7.526 7 1.08 mp-593 Al4Cu9 0 6.853923 61.16 13 4.7 mp-16515 Al4Ni3 0 5.093005 48.86 7 6.98 mp-1229054 Al53Fe17Si12 0 3.847798 122.478 82 1.49 mp-196 Al5Co2 0 4.338446 74.55 7 10.65 mp-570001 Al6Fe 0 3.428138 11.164 7 1.59 mp-1229249 Al79(Fe13Si9)2 0 3.829625 183.034 123 1.49 mp-2733 Al8Mo3 0 5.003747 134.62 11 12.24 mp-16488 Al9Co2 0 3.608519 81.71 11 7.43 mp-284 AlCo 0 6.136769 34.59 2 17.29 mp-1699 AlCr2 0 5.748722 20.59 3 6.86 mp-2500 AlCu 0 5.356855 7.79 2 3.9 mp-12802 AlCu3 0 7.287482 19.79 4 4.95 mp-2658 AlFe 0 5.791723 2.214 2 1.11 mp-867878 AlFe2Si 0 6.28905 4.338 4 1.08 mp-1183162 AlFe3 0 6.64785 3.062 4 0.77 mp-259 AlMo3 0 8.470008 122.09 4 30.52 mp-1487 AlNi 0 5.906845 15.69 2 7.85 mp-2593 AlNi3 0 7.466732 43.49 4 10.87 mp-1387 AlV3 0 5.367847 1156.79 4 289.2 mp-576 B13C2 0 2.438648 48.084 15 3.21 mp-5506 Ba(AlSi)2 0 3.475027 7.255 5 1.45 mp-567643 Ba12Na15Li8N6 0 2.425386 740.39 41 18.06 mp-6645 Ba14Na14CaN6 0 2.757389 55.06 35 1.57 mp-645662 Ba14Na14LiN6 0 2.711592 138.31 35 3.95 mp-569025 Ba19Na29Li13 0.0147 2.190395 1217.495 61 19.96 mp-567701 Ba21Al40 0 3.884213 77.375 61 1.27 mp-8093 Ba2Cd 0 4.503964 3.28 3 1.09 mp-1102914 Ba2Eu3Si7 0 4.946268 106.65 12 8.89 mp-8094 Ba2Hg 0 5.677448 30.75 3 10.25 mp-1813 Ba2Mg17 0 2.238174 39.99 19 2.1 mp-1892 Ba2N 0 4.403708 0.69 3 0.23 mp-21246 Ba2Pb 0.0383 5.787076 2.55 3 0.85 mp-9905 Ba2Si 0.0553 4.278608 2.25 3 0.75 mp-1981 Ba2Sn 0.0155 4.834448 19.25 3 6.42 mp-9578 Ba3(AlSi)2 0 3.898588 7.805 7 1.11 mp-30905 Ba3(BN2)2 2.5259 4.542904 8.745 9 0.97 mp-8868 Ba3NaN 0 3.386127 4.395 5 0.88 mp-1619 Ba3Si4 0.0012 3.952257 7.625 7 1.09 mp-2631 Ba4Al5 0 3.901347 10.05 9 1.12 mp-9705 Ba4Na(BN2)3 2.4682 4.48226 16.41 14 1.17 mp-568512 Ba6Mg23 0 2.597055 55.01 29 1.9 mp-570400 Ba7Al10 0 3.910774 19.825 17 1.17 mp-30429 Ba8Ga7 0 4.702519 1038.2 15 69.21 mp-1105101 Ba9In4 0 4.681514 670.475 13 51.58 mp-1903 BaAl4 0 3.425432 7.435 5 1.49 mp-13149 BaAlSi 0 3.806506 3.765 3 1.25 mp-954 BaB6 0.0623 4.281989 22.355 7 3.19 mp-1214417 BaC6 0 3.961949 1.007 7 0.14 mp-16253 BaCaSi 0.1767 3.413084 4.325 3 1.44 mp-527 BaCd 0 5.290471 3.005 2 1.5 mp-11266 BaCd2 0 6.05756 5.735 3 1.91 mp-1029375 BaCN2 2.982 3.498345 0.677 4 0.17 mp-30428 BaCu 0 4.510555 6.275 2 3.14 mp-1219 BaGa2 0 5.17334 296.275 3 98.76 mp-335 BaGa4 0 5.942574 592.275 5 118.45 mp-2197 BaHg 0 7.458275 30.475 2 15.24 mp-31509 BaIn 0 5.565138 167.275 2 83.64 mp-22141 BaIn2 0 6.050443 334.275 3 111.42 mp-1935 BaMg2 0 3.030975 4.915 3 1.64 mp-1001 BaN2 0 4.760885 0.555 3 0.19 mp-11820 BaNa2 0 2.217756 7.135 3 2.38 mp-20136 BaPb 0 6.68722 2.275 2 1.14 mp-1067235 BaSi 0 4.286154 1.975 2 0.99 mp-1477 BaSi2 0.791 3.628158 3.675 3 1.22 mp-872 BaSn 0 5.242658 18.975 2 9.49 mp-30434 BaTl2 0 8.346846 8400.275 3 2800.09 mp-87 Be 0 1.895724 857 1 857 mp-27757 Be4B 0 1.981767 3431.68 5 686.34 mp-569304 C 2.6904 1.274371 0.122 1 0.12 mp-132 Ca 0 1.569031 2.35 1 2.35 mp-7704 Ca(AlSi)2 0 2.347097 9.33 5 1.87 mp-568793 Ca28Ga11 0 2.585517 1693.8 39 43.43 mp-12614 Ca2Cu 0 2.6295 10.7 3 3.57 mp-1227300 Ca2GaSi 0 2.915363 154.4 4 38.6 mp-1103139 Ca2Hg 0 4.924543 34.9 3 11.63 mp-2686 Ca2N 0 2.161683 4.84 3 1.61 mp-30478 Ca2Pb 0.0771 4.775951 6.7 3 2.23 mp-2517 Ca2Si 0.2915 2.165188 6.4 3 2.13 mp-22735 Ca2Sn 0.0596 3.412531 23.4 3 7.8 mp-18167 Ca3Cd2 0 3.620507 12.51 5 2.5 mp-30473 Ca3Ga5 0 4.266022 747.05 8 93.38 mp-11288 Ca3Hg2 0 5.581053 67.45 5 13.49 mp-844 Ca3N2 1.1111 2.606386 7.33 5 1.47 mp-640340 Ca4MgAl3 0 2.018737 17.09 8 2.14 mp-1227465 Ca4Zn51 0 6.385063 139.45 55 2.54 mp-793 Ca5Si3 0 2.188848 16.85 8 2.11 mp-2786 Ca5Zn3 0 2.763437 19.4 8 2.42 mp-1190736 Ca8Al3 0 1.895136 24.17 11 2.2 mp-1191538 Ca8In3 0 2.9916 519.8 11 47.25 mp-2404 CaAl2 0 2.425285 5.93 3 1.98 mp-570150 CaAlSi 0 2.354365 5.84 3 1.95 mp-1213975 CaB4 0 2.631299 17.07 5 3.41 mp-865 CaB6 0.1835 2.437996 24.43 7 3.49 mp-1845 CaBe13 0 1.947352 11143.35 14 795.95 mp-1073 CaCd 0 4.408706 5.08 2 2.54 mp-1444 CaCd2 0 5.485134 7.81 3 2.6 mp-585949 CaCu 0 3.622394 8.35 2 4.17 mp-1882 CaCu5 0 6.536939 32.35 6 5.39 mp-6914 CaGa 0 3.478416 150.35 2 75.17 mp-11284 CaGa2 0 4.589511 298.35 3 99.45 mp-11286 CaHg 0 7.21503 32.55 2 16.27 mp-20263 CaIn 0 4.457749 169.35 2 84.67 mp-1039148 CaMg 0 1.713629 4.67 2 2.33 mp-1184449 CaMg149 0.499 1.754975 348.03 150 2.32 mp-2432 CaMg2 0 1.731927 6.99 3 2.33 mp-5473 CaMgSi 0.0159 2.228699 6.37 3 2.12 mp-1009657 CaN2 0 2.887755 2.63 3 0.88 mp-1563 CaSi 0 2.377161 4.05 2 2.02 mp-2861 CaTl 0 6.802615 4202.35 2 2101.18 mp-30483 CaZn 0 3.270684 4.9 2 2.45 mp-18567 CaZn11 0 6.439707 30.4 12 2.53 mp-1725 CaZn2 0 4.415864 7.45 3 2.48 mp-1734 CaZn5 0 5.681812 15.1 6 2.52 mp-16266 CaZnSi 0 3.460967 6.6 3 2.2 mp-567332 Ce 0 8.917867 4.71 1 4.71 mp-3035 Ce(FeSi)2 0 6.676439 8.958 5 1.79 mp-20181 Ce2C3 0 7.074734 9.786 5 1.96 mp-19920 Ce3Ga 0 8.078079 162.13 4 40.53 mp-21412 Ce3Tl 0 9.143027 4214.13 4 1053.53 mp-570175 Ce5Si3 0 6.736034 28.65 8 3.58 mp-1196829 Ce5Si4 0 6.040718 30.35 9 3.37 mp-2801 CeCu2 0 8.065457 16.71 3 5.57 mp-581942 CeCu6 0 8.455393 40.71 7 5.82 mp-11317 CeFe5 0 7.942088 6.83 6 1.14 mp-20245 CeFeSi 0 6.792241 6.834 3 2.28 mp-1025450 CeFeSi2 0 6.195414 8.534 4 2.13 mp-1018276 CeGa 0 6.849882 152.71 2 76.36 mp-2209 CeGa2 0 6.913058 300.71 3 100.24 mp-862696 CeGa3 0 7.143669 448.71 4 112.18 mp-1039345 CeMg2 0 4.198994 9.35 3 3.12 mp-2493 CeN 0 7.942476 4.85 2 2.42 mp-21115 CeSi 0 6.016047 6.41 2 3.21 mp-1898 CeSi2 0 5.496005 8.11 3 2.7 mp-1206755 CeTl 0 9.953953 4204.71 2 2102.36 mp-54 Co 0 8.959676 32.8 1 32.8 mp-19905 Co2Si 0 7.586966 67.3 3 22.43 mp-1139 Co3Mo 0 9.788206 138.5 4 34.62 mp-1183837 Co3Ni 0 9.020551 112.3 4 28.07 mp-2157 Co3W 0 12.92412 133.7 4 33.42 mp-20857 CoB 0 7.45659 36.48 2 18.24 mp-7577 CoSi 0 6.633921 34.5 2 17.25 mp-2379 CoSi2 0 4.964464 36.2 3 12.07 mp-90 Cr 0 7.274081 9.4 1 9.4 mp-723 Cr23C6 0 7.1678 216.932 29 7.48 mp-569424 Cr2B 0 6.74589 22.48 3 7.49 mp-8780 Cr2N 0 6.723825 18.94 3 6.31 mp-20937 Cr3C2 0 6.79518 28.444 5 5.69 mp-729 Cr3Si 0 6.625101 29.9 4 7.48 mp-15617 Cr5B3 0 6.587366 58.04 8 7.25 mp-1196316 Cr7C3 0 7.055496 66.166 10 6.62 mp-1080664 CrB 0 6.267643 13.08 2 6.54 mp-1078278 CrB4 0 4.279143 24.12 5 4.82 mp-1183691 CrN 0 6.763021 9.54 2 4.77 mp-784631 CrNi2 0 8.620907 37.2 3 12.4 mp-8937 CrSi2 0 5.015723 12.8 3 4.27 mp-1184151 Cs 0.1362 1.885761 61800 1 61800 mp-1199908 Cs7NaSi8 1.5761 3.10064 432617.03 16 27038.56 mp-28861 CsC8 0 2.893417 61800.976 9 6866.78 mp-30 Cu 0 8.888275 6 1 6 mp-14266 Cu15Si4 0 7.743605 96.8 19 5.09 mp-1184115 Er 0 9.037772 26.4 1 26.4 mp-1225044 Er2C 0 8.678709 52.922 3 17.64 mp-1203719 Er3C4 0 8.934403 79.688 7 11.38 mp-1212833 Er4C7 0 8.047974 106.454 11 9.68 mp-31167 Er5Si3 0 8.045293 137.1 8 17.14 mp-1105965 Er5Tl3 0 10.3935 12732 8 1591.5 mp-1774 ErB2 0 8.881021 33.76 3 11.25 mp-2847 ErB4 0 6.99873 41.12 5 8.22 mp-1955 ErCu 0 9.463506 32.4 2 16.2 mp-1024991 ErCu2 0 9.341568 38.4 3 12.8 mp-30579 ErCu5 0 9.420409 56.4 6 9.4 mp-378 ErSi 0 7.710454 28.1 2 14.05 mp-1057315 Eu 0 6.086595 31.4 1 31.4 mp-1213070 Eu2Sn 0 6.901469 81.5 3 27.17 mp-867318 Eu3Tl 0 8.006177 4294.2 4 1073.55 mp-1190061 Eu5Si3 0 6.153677 162.1 8 20.26 mp-20111 EuAl2 0 4.988962 34.98 3 11.66 mp-582799 EuAl4 0 4.00127 38.56 5 7.71 mp-20874 EuB6 0 4.963691 53.48 7 7.64 mp-1103990 EuC6 0 4.798312 32.132 7 4.59 mp-1087547 EuCu 0 7.049618 37.4 2 18.7 mp-1071732 EuCu2 0 7.840235 43.4 3 14.47 mp-2066 EuCu5 0 8.369253 61.4 6 10.23 mp-11375 EuHg 0 9.8364 61.6 2 30.8 mp-20394 EuPb 0 9.426836 33.4 2 16.7 mp-21279 EuSi 0 5.904327 33.1 2 16.55 mp-1072248 EuSi2 0 5.454986 34.8 3 11.6 mp-567833 EuSn 0 6.837518 50.1 2 25.05 mp-13 Fe 0 8.096265 0.424 1 0.42 mp-601848 Fe11Co5 0 8.108532 168.664 16 10.54 mp-1915 Fe2B 0 7.490316 4.528 3 1.51 mp-601820 Fe3Co 0 8.136129 34.072 4 8.52 mp-1804 Fe3N 0 7.421216 1.412 4 0.35 mp-2199 Fe3Si 0 7.388614 2.972 4 0.74 mp-601842 Fe9Co7 0 8.206827 233.416 16 14.59 mp-1080525 FeB 0 6.887697 4.104 2 2.05 mp-2090 FeCo 0 8.290363 33.224 2 16.61 mp-6988 FeN 0 6.127073 0.564 2 0.28 mp-2213 FeNi 0 8.452471 14.324 2 7.16 mp-1418 FeNi3 0 8.700536 42.124 4 10.53 mp-871 FeSi 0.1664 6.33388 2.124 2 1.06 mp-1714 FeSi2 0.6976 4.958878 3.824 3 1.27 mp-11397 Ga3Ni2 0 7.682462 471.8 5 94.36 mp-11398 Ga3Ni5 0 8.802756 513.5 8 64.19 mp-21589 Ga9Ni13 0 8.532837 1512.7 22 68.76 mp-1183995 GaCu3 0 8.629827 166 4 41.5 mp-804 GaN 1.7376 5.923651 148.14 2 74.07 mp-815 GaNi3 0 8.937909 189.7 4 47.42 mp-155 Gd 0 8.001979 28.6 1 28.6 mp-28366 Gd2B5 0 6.836474 75.6 7 10.8 mp-1224869 Gd2C 0 7.676989 57.322 3 19.11 mp-1189998 Gd2C3 0 7.992747 57.566 5 11.51 mp-1205813 Gd2MgSi2 0 5.904292 62.92 5 12.58 mp-579628 Gd2Tl 0 9.733823 4257.2 3 1419.07 mp-1199486 Gd5Si4 0 6.902406 149.8 9 16.64 mp-1105563 GdB4 0 6.464598 43.32 5 8.66 mp-22266 GdB6 0 5.311474 50.68 7 7.24 mp-614455 GdCu 0 8.506838 34.6 2 17.3 mp-1077933 GdCu2 0 8.348842 40.6 3 13.53 mp-636253 GdCu5 0 8.925302 58.6 6 9.77 mp-11422 GdHg 0 11.17449 58.8 2 29.4 mp-2636 GdMg 0 5.379276 30.92 2 15.46 mp-20534 GdMg3 0 3.976209 35.56 4 8.89 mp-601371 GdSi 0 6.899145 30.3 2 15.15 mp-21192 GdSi2 0 6.050126 32 3 10.67 mp-19966 GdTl 0 10.45587 4228.6 2 2114.3 mp-103 Hf 0 13.18322 900 1 900 mp-1224756 Hf14Cu51 0 10.7533 12906 65 198.55 mp-30581 Hf2Cu 0 12.40424 1806 3 602 mp-864647 Hf2N 0 13.23693 1800.14 3 600.05 mp-7353 Hf3Cu8 0 10.98414 2748 11 249.82 mp-1224388 Hf3N2 0 13.38749 2700.28 5 540.06 mp-776470 Hf3N4 1.0064 11.51383 2700.56 7 385.79 mp-976128 Hf5Sc 0 11.46515 7960 6 1326.67 mp-1200988 Hf7Cu10 0 11.40178 6360 17 374.12 mp-21075 HfC 0 12.57417 900.122 2 450.06 mp-2363 HfMo2 0 11.27481 980.2 3 326.73 mp-2828 HfN 0 13.684 900.14 2 450.07 mp-10659 Ho 0 8.822554 57.1 1 57.1 mp-569851 Ho10Si17 0 6.713993 599.9 27 22.22 mp-1640 Ho2C 0 8.412835 114.322 3 38.11 mp-1202754 Ho3C4 0 8.700158 171.788 7 24.54 mp-15238 Ho4C5 0 8.409762 229.01 9 25.45 mp-1154 Ho4C7 0.5867 7.857241 229.254 11 20.84 mp-13236 Ho5Si3 0 7.80741 290.6 8 36.33 mp-1181055 Ho5Tl3 0 10.21932 12885.5 8 1610.69 mp-2267 HoB2 0 8.642414 64.46 3 21.49 mp-569281 HoB4 0 6.87016 71.82 5 14.36 mp-12899 HoSi 0 7.513612 58.8 2 29.4 mp-1540 HoTl 0 11.27726 4257.1 2 2128.55 mp-1184905 K 0 0.868387 13.6 1 13.6 mp-1225049 K18Na46Tl31 0 3.927045 130602.58 95 1374.76 mp-3949 K7LiSi8 1.693 1.693421 194.4 16 12.15 mp-28930 KC8 0 1.949986 14.576 9 1.62 mp-1217 KSi 1.2619 1.742992 15.3 2 7.65 mp-784 KZn13 0 6.22728 46.75 14 3.34 mp-1018134 Li 0 0.573095 85.6 1 85.6 mp-510430 Li13In3 0 2.47108 1613.8 16 100.86 mp-672287 Li13Si4 0 1.283597 1119.6 17 65.86 mp-1222798 Li14MgSi4 0.1059 1.286984 1207.52 19 63.55 mp-574275 Li17Pb4 0 3.96125 1463.2 21 69.68 mp-573471 Li17Sn4 0 2.589549 1530 21 72.86 mp-29720 Li21Si5 0 1.194592 1806.1 26 69.47 mp-1210753 Li2Al 0 1.381341 172.99 3 57.66 mp-570466 Li2Ca 0 1.083251 173.55 3 57.85 mp-29210 Li2Ga 0 2.981137 319.2 3 106.4 mp-31324 Li2In 0 3.818917 338.2 3 112.73 mp-1105932 Li2MgSi 0.218 1.705165 175.22 4 43.8 mp-16506 Li3Al2 0 1.53862 260.38 5 52.08 mp-867343 Li3Cd 0 2.969004 259.53 4 64.88 mp-9568 Li3Ga2 0 3.489024 552.8 5 110.56 mp-1646 Li3Hg 0 5.233841 287 4 71.75 mp-867226 Li3In 0 3.062221 423.8 4 105.95 mp-21293 Li3In2 0 4.325351 590.8 5 118.16 mp-1094591 Li3Mg 0 0.919302 259.12 4 64.78 mp-2251 Li3N 0.9986 1.288609 256.94 4 64.23 mp-7396 Li3Tl 0 5.009351 4456.8 4 1114.2 mp-1205930 Li5Ga4 0 3.760163 1020 9 113.33 mp-12283 Li5Tl2 0 5.534064 8828 7 1261.14 mp-30761 Li7Pb2 0 4.575943 603.2 9 67.02 mp-1201871 Li7Si3 0 1.477568 604.3 10 60.43 mp-30767 Li7Sn2 0 2.974648 636.6 9 70.73 mp-1067 LiAl 0 1.754628 87.39 2 43.7 mp-10890 LiAl3 0 2.237075 90.97 4 22.74 mp-3161 LiAlSi 0.1426 1.966694 89.09 3 29.7 mp-1001835 LiB 0 1.356921 89.28 2 44.64 mp-1222413 LiB3 0.088 1.756194 96.64 4 24.16 mp-1021323 LiC12 0 2.019464 87.064 13 6.7 mp-1437 LiCd 0 5.162727 88.33 2 44.16 mp-862658 LiCu3 0 6.929195 103.6 4 25.9 mp-1094889 LiMg 0 1.294794 87.92 2 43.96 mp-866755 LiMg149 0 1.74405 431.28 150 2.88 mp-973374 LiMg2 0 1.425083 90.24 3 30.08 mp-1198027 LiSi2B 1.1654 2.370184 92.68 4 23.17 mp-973391 LiSiB6 1.6991 2.340913 109.38 8 13.67 mp-14208 LiYSi 0 3.416484 118.3 3 39.43 mp-1934 LiZn 0 4.082778 88.15 2 44.07 mp-975799 LiZn3 0 5.75487 93.25 4 23.31 mp-567224 Mg(SiB6)2 1.9371 2.461378 49.88 15 3.33 mp-1185596 Mg149Al 0.5011 1.772538 347.47 150 2.32 mp-1185581 Mg149Cd 0.5742 1.814631 348.41 150 2.32 mp-1185597 Mg149Ga 0.4779 1.801585 493.68 150 3.29 mp-1185579 Mg149Hg 0.5682 1.854374 375.88 150 2.51 mp-1185594 Mg149In 0.5296 1.800697 512.68 150 3.42 mp-1185570 Mg149Pb 0.383 1.857156 347.68 150 2.32 mp-1185631 Mg149Sc 0.2496 1.774147 3805.68 150 25.37 mp-1185637 Mg149Sn 0.4181 1.816858 364.38 150 2.43 mp-1185635 Mg149Tl 0.4888 1.861349 4545.68 150 30.3 mp-1185642 Mg149Zn 0.578 1.775147 348.23 150 2.32 mp-2151 Mg17Al12 0 2.094692 60.92 29 2.1 mp-1094909 Mg2Cd 0 4.055133 7.37 3 2.46 mp-30650 Mg2Ga 0 3.211673 152.64 3 50.88 mp-2137 Mg2Ni 0 3.481329 18.54 3 6.18 mp-1367 Mg2Si 0.2935 1.97537 6.34 3 2.11 mp-1201511 Mg3(Al9V)2 0 2.81921 809.18 23 35.18 mp-30490 Mg3Cd 0 3.471382 9.69 4 2.42 mp-1559 Mg3N2 1.5099 2.661929 7.24 5 1.45 mp-1185790 Mg3Sc 0 2.138724 3466.96 4 866.74 mp-1222150 Mg4AlB10 0 2.738712 47.87 15 3.19 mp-680671 Mg4Zn7 0 4.902722 27.13 11 2.47 mp-1770 Mg5Ga2 0 2.981947 307.6 7 43.94 mp-1094116 MgAl2 0 2.29486 5.9 3 1.97 mp-1207086 MgAlB4 0 2.910035 18.83 6 3.14 mp-763 MgB2 0 2.637301 9.68 3 3.23 mp-365 MgB4 0.365 2.504416 17.04 5 3.41 mp-978275 MgB7 1.4635 2.618328 28.08 8 3.51 mp-30091 MgB9N 1.9608 2.577471 35.58 11 3.23 mp-2675 MgNi2 0 6.032501 30.12 3 10.04 mp-864941 MgSc2 0 2.6532 6922.32 3 2307.44 mp-978269 MgZn2 0 5.080755 7.42 3 2.47 mp-35 Mn 0 8.265241 1.82 1 1.82 mp-542830 Mn23C6 0 7.843044 42.592 29 1.47 mp-20318 Mn2B 0 7.609817 7.32 3 2.44 mp-9981 Mn2N 0 6.98777 3.78 3 1.26 mp-12659 Mn2Nb 0 8.479514 89.24 3 29.75 mp-15819 Mn3Al9Si 0 3.905078 23.27 13 1.79 mp-10118 Mn3B4 0 6.153079 20.18 7 2.88 mp-1185970 Mn3Co 0 8.771772 38.26 4 9.56 mp-20211 Mn3Si 0 7.078773 7.16 4 1.79 mp-2856 Mn4Al11 0 4.068219 26.97 15 1.8 mp-505622 Mn4N 0 7.329288 7.42 5 1.48 mp-680339 Mn4Si7 0.8013 5.260601 19.18 11 1.74 mp-21256 Mn7C3 0 7.85868 13.106 10 1.31 mp-771 MnAl 0 5.127965 3.61 2 1.81 mp-173 MnAl6 0 3.352783 12.56 7 1.79 mp-1106184 MnB4 0 4.493457 16.54 5 3.31 mp-1104792 MnBe12 0 2.58107 10285.82 13 791.22 mp-11270 MnBe2 0 4.819797 1715.82 3 571.94 mp-5529 MnFe2Si 0 7.393943 4.368 4 1.09 mp-1221619 MnFeSi2 0 6.145428 5.644 4 1.41 mp-1001836 MnGa 0 7.715924 149.82 2 74.91 mp-1009130 MnN 0.0945 5.922482 1.96 2 0.98 mp-11501 MnNi3 0 8.498199 43.52 4 10.88 mp-1431 MnSi 0 5.972686 3.52 2 1.76 mp-316 MnV 0 7.406262 386.82 2 193.41 mp-864984 MnV3 0 6.85173 1156.82 4 289.2 mp-129 Mo 0 10.02491 40.1 1 40.1 mp-1552 Mo2C 0 8.94399 80.322 3 26.77 mp-10172 Na 0 1.02852 3.43 1 3.43 mp-1029705 Na15Cr7N19 0.6963 2.757658 119.91 41 2.92 mp-21895 Na15Pb4 0 3.28967 59.45 19 3.13 mp-30794 Na15Sn4 0 2.382357 126.25 19 6.64 mp-31430 Na2In 0 2.931312 173.86 3 57.95 mp-865625 Na2MgSn 0.0234 2.785914 27.88 4 6.97 mp-30795 Na2Tl 0 4.426418 4206.86 3 1402.29 mp-262 Na3B20 0 2.146003 83.89 23 3.65 mp-28630 Na3BN2 1.6631 2.118291 14.25 6 2.38 mp-983509 Na3Cd 0 2.461205 13.02 4 3.26 mp-541291 Na3MoN3 1.4285 3.137351 50.81 7 7.26 mp-16839 Na3WN3 1.7694 4.437512 46.01 7 6.57 mp-571095 Na7Ga13 0 4.12335 1948.01 20 97.4 mp-541787 Na8Hg3 0 3.977038 118.04 11 10.73 mp-34763 NaAlB14 1.7015 2.657945 56.74 16 3.55 mp-27335 NaAlSi 0 2.069717 6.92 3 2.31 mp-865051 NaCa2Tl 0 4.075919 4208.13 4 1052.03 mp-866047 NaEuTl2 0 8.049246 8434.83 4 2108.71 mp-1186271 NaMg149 0.5472 1.750189 349.11 150 2.33 mp-1030657 NaNbN2 2.2984 3.738886 89.31 4 22.33 mp-865108 NaSmHg2 0 9.297066 77.73 4 19.43 mp-10811 NaSr4(BN2)3 2.4848 3.719149 42.03 14 3 mp-5475 NaTaN2 1.3323 7.914573 315.71 4 78.93 mp-1029711 NaVN2 0.945 2.811362 388.71 4 97.18 mp-950 NaZn13 0 6.241478 36.58 14 2.61 mp-75 Nb 0 8.427647 85.6 1 85.6 mp-18427 Nb2Al 0 6.789454 172.99 3 57.66 mp-569989 Nb2C 0 7.673756 171.322 3 57.11 mp-1079585 Nb2N 0 8.022841 171.34 3 57.11 mp-11393 Nb3Ga2 0 8.136718 552.8 5 110.56 mp-1192618 Nb4Fe4Si7 0 6.627655 355.996 15 23.73 mp-13686 Nb5Si3 0 6.967601 433.1 8 54.14 mp-2760 Nb6C5 0 7.503639 514.21 11 46.75 mp-542995 Nb6Fe16Si7 0 7.716441 532.284 29 18.35 mp-1842 NbAl3 0 4.501844 90.97 4 22.74 mp-1221111 NbFe 0 8.528215 86.024 2 43.01 mp-1192350 NbFe2 0 8.80312 86.448 3 28.82 mp-1209887 NbFeSi 0 7.175613 87.724 3 29.24 mp-1196167 NbFeSi2 0 6.407325 89.424 4 22.36 mp-2634 NbN 0 7.984187 85.74 2 42.87 mp-12104 NbSi2 0 5.57744 89 3 29.67 mp-1220316 NbW 0 13.43139 120.9 2 60.45 mp-123 Nd 0 6.758696 57.5 1 57.5 mp-567415 Nd2B5 0 5.945181 133.4 7 19.06 mp-1800 Nd2C3 0 6.738088 115.366 5 23.07 mp-356 Nd2Co17 0 8.660875 672.6 19 35.4 mp-1084826 Nd2Co3 0 8.309643 213.4 5 42.68 mp-1106011 Nd3Co 0 7.282344 205.3 4 51.33 mp-1203103 Nd3Ga2 0 6.751688 468.5 5 93.7 mp-1533 Nd3Tl 0 8.457986 4372.5 4 1093.12 mp-1104652 Nd5Co2 0 7.325777 353.1 7 50.44 mp-567735 Nd5Si3 0 6.280953 292.6 8 36.58 mp-355 Nd5Si4 0 5.868755 294.3 9 32.7 mp-1632 NdB4 0 5.768966 72.22 5 14.44 mp-1929 NdB6 0 4.908784 79.58 7 11.37 mp-13392 NdCu 0 7.323929 63.5 2 31.75 mp-11852 NdCu2 0 7.992311 69.5 3 23.17 mp-1140 NdCu5 0 8.263728 87.5 6 14.58 mp-1448 NdGa 0 6.683011 205.5 2 102.75 mp-2524 NdGa2 0 6.886527 353.5 3 117.83 mp-11467 NdHg 0 10.08719 87.7 2 43.85 mp-1327 NdMg 0 4.772306 59.82 2 29.91 mp-1787 NdMg3 0 3.533555 64.46 4 16.11 mp-2599 NdN 0.4304 7.62743 57.64 2 28.82 mp-9967 NdSi 0 5.927845 59.2 2 29.6 mp-884 NdSi2 0 5.35905 60.9 3 20.3 mp-571405 NdTl 0 9.670593 4257.5 2 2128.75 mp-23 Ni 0 9.04769 13.9 1 13.9 mp-2536 Ni2B 0 8.108396 31.48 3 10.49 mp-4091 Ni2Mo3N 0 9.425318 148.24 6 24.71 mp-2058 Ni3B 0 8.260442 45.38 4 11.35 mp-11506 Ni3Mo 0 9.512797 81.8 4 20.45 mp-640067 Ni4B3 0 7.579792 66.64 7 9.52 mp-11507 Ni4Mo 0 9.438042 95.7 5 19.14 mp-30811 Ni4W 0 11.89007 90.9 5 18.18 mp-1179656 Rb 0 1.572308 15500 1 15500 mp-1202504 Rb7NaSi8 1.6841 2.462322 108517.03 16 6782.31 mp-568643 RbC8 0 2.448462 15500.976 9 1722.33 mp-1029828 RbCrN2 0.1903 4.05414 15509.68 4 3877.42 mp-67 Sc 0 3.023051 3460 1 3460 mp-29941 Sc2C 0 3.118297 6920.122 3 2306.71 mp-31348 Sc2In 0 4.870412 7087 3 2362.33 mp-685209 Sc39N34 0 4.06597 134944.76 73 1848.56 mp-28733 Sc3C4 0 3.561973 10380.488 7 1482.93 mp-30666 Sc3Ga2 0 4.417557 10676 5 2135.2 mp-1200767 Sc3Ga5 0 5.465766 11120 8 1390 mp-861910 Sc3Hg 0 6.095376 10410.2 4 2602.55 mp-19713 Sc3In 0 4.443026 10547 4 2636.75 mp-1186974 Sc3Tl 0 5.95077 14580 4 3645 mp-15661 Sc4C3 0.4656 3.799359 13840.366 7 1977.2 mp-7822 Sc5Si3 0 3.252083 17305.1 8 2163.14 mp-17695 Sc5Sn3 0 5.104694 17356.1 8 2169.51 mp-2252 ScB2 0 3.660544 3467.36 3 1155.79 mp-1169 ScCu 0 5.22254 3466 2 1733 mp-1018149 ScCu2 0 6.252104 3472 3 1157.33 mp-11411 ScGa 0 4.705647 3608 2 1804 mp-932 ScGa3 0 6.02691 3904 4 976 mp-11471 ScHg 0 9.281451 3490.2 2 1745.1 mp-1207100 ScIn 0 5.842138 3627 2 1813.5 mp-2857 ScN 0.325 4.245782 3460.14 2 1730.07 mp-9969 ScSi 0 3.336116 3461.7 2 1730.85 mp-11566 ScZn 0 4.846371 3462.55 2 1731.28 mp-13503 ScZn2 0 5.692297 3465.1 3 1155.03 mp-862260 ScZn3 0 6.031671 3467.65 4 866.91 mp-1219746 ScZn6 0 6.527959 3475.3 7 496.47 mp-149 Si 0.8527 2.281194 1.7 1 1.7 mp-27276 Si12Ni31 0 7.616395 451.3 43 10.5 mp-2291 Si2Ni 0 4.724646 17.3 3 5.77 mp-1620 Si2W 0 9.68978 38.7 3 12.9 mp-568656 SiC 2.0411 3.171908 1.822 2 0.91 mp-351 SiNi 0 5.981087 15.6 2 7.8 mp-1118 SiNi2 0 7.347407 29.5 3 9.83 mp-828 SiNi3 0 7.87571 43.4 4 10.85 mp-86 Sm 0 7.336111 13.9 1 13.9 mp-570421 Sm2B5 0 6.381171 46.2 7 6.6 mp-1219177 Sm2C 0 6.963794 27.922 3 9.31 mp-569335 Sm2C3 0 7.34282 28.166 5 5.63 mp-319 Sm2Tl 0 9.21902 4227.8 3 1409.27 mp-1106373 Sm5Si3 0 6.518409 74.6 8 9.32 mp-8546 SmB4 0 6.100419 28.62 5 5.72 mp-6996 SmB6 0 5.111503 35.98 7 5.14 mp-980769 SmCu 0 7.954064 19.9 2 9.95 mp-1077154 SmCu2 0 8.113357 25.9 3 8.63 mp-227 SmCu5 0 8.498336 43.9 6 7.32 mp-1025489 SmSi 0 6.372032 15.6 2 7.8 mp-13955 SmSi2 0 5.661701 17.3 3 5.77 mp-2541 SmTl 0 10.22034 4213.9 2 2106.95 mp-1187073 Sr 0 2.676562 6.68 1 6.68 mp-705522 Sr28In11 0 3.772801 2024.04 39 51.9 mp-1245 Sr2N 0 3.493077 13.5 3 4.5 mp-30828 Sr2Pb 0.0363 5.302832 15.36 3 5.12 mp-1106 Sr2Si 0.3434 3.353462 15.06 3 5.02 mp-978 Sr2Sn 0.1528 4.212174 32.06 3 10.69 mp-1218375 Sr2Zn5Si3 0 4.993594 31.21 10 3.12 mp-7068 Sr3(AlSi)2 0 3.159108 27.02 7 3.86 mp-13427 Sr3Hg2 0 5.878161 80.44 5 16.09 mp-1109 Sr5Al9 0 3.185371 49.51 14 3.54 mp-542484 Sr5Cd3 0 4.068645 41.59 8 5.2 mp-746 Sr5Si3 0 3.349596 38.5 8 4.81 mp-17720 Sr5Sn3 0 4.296219 89.5 8 11.19 mp-30782 Sr6Mg23 0 2.168975 93.44 29 3.22 mp-30667 Sr8Ga7 0 4.01657 1089.44 15 72.63 mp-2775 SrAl4 0 2.89718 13.84 5 2.77 mp-3698 SrAlSi 0 3.162717 10.17 3 3.39 mp-242 SrB6 0.035 3.417061 28.76 7 4.11 mp-2080 SrBe13 0 2.424044 11147.68 14 796.26 mp-1208630 SrC6 0 3.270211 7.412 7 1.06 mp-7084 SrCaSi 0.4225 2.831609 10.73 3 3.58 mp-30496 SrCd 0 4.884926 9.41 2 4.71 mp-677 SrCd2 0 5.74978 12.14 3 4.05 mp-1025402 SrCu 0 4.000956 12.68 2 6.34 mp-2726 SrCu5 0 6.972726 36.68 6 6.11 mp-182 SrGa2 0 4.754548 302.68 3 100.89 mp-1827 SrGa4 0 5.572999 598.68 5 119.74 mp-542 SrHg 0 7.325554 36.88 2 18.44 mp-608072 SrIn 0 4.661916 173.68 2 86.84 mp-20074 SrIn2 0 5.762914 340.68 3 113.56 mp-1187198 SrMg2 0 2.399509 11.32 3 3.77 mp-29973 SrN 0 3.854518 6.82 2 3.41 mp-10564 SrN2 0 4.089657 6.96 3 2.32 mp-2661 SrSi 0 3.451942 8.38 2 4.19 mp-1727 SrSi2 0 3.472602 10.08 3 3.36 mp-1698 SrSn 0 4.849131 25.38 2 12.69 mp-2434 SrTl 0 6.949817 4206.68 2 2103.34 mp-12724 SrZn 0 3.978955 9.23 2 4.62 mp-18026 SrZn11 0 6.671607 34.73 12 2.89 mp-672707 SrZn13 0 6.710137 39.83 14 2.84 mp-569426 SrZn2 0 4.961627 11.78 3 3.93 mp-1435 SrZn5 0 5.826695 19.43 6 3.24 mp-9556 SrZnSi 0 4.139152 10.93 3 3.64 mp-50 Ta 0 16.3878 312 1 312 mp-1193531 Ta2Al 0 12.51252 625.79 3 208.6 mp-1079438 Ta2N 0 15.39304 624.14 3 208.05 mp-1867 Ta2Ni 0 14.78623 637.9 3 212.63 mp-568646 Ta3Si 0 13.88613 937.7 4 234.43 mp-1187206 Ta3W 0 17.11634 971.3 4 242.82 mp-1989 Ta5Si3 0 12.78743 1565.1 8 195.64 mp-869 TaAl3 0 6.813776 317.37 4 79.34 mp-12678 TaMn2 0 12.19994 315.64 3 105.21 mp-1279 TaN 0 13.99559 312.14 2 156.07 mp-570491 TaNi3 0 12.03461 353.7 4 88.42 mp-11192 TaSi2 0 8.940924 315.4 3 105.13 mp-567276 TaV2 0 10.38566 1082 3 360.67 mp-1217811 TaW 0 17.65981 347.3 2 173.65 mp-979289 TaW3 0 18.29085 417.9 4 104.47 mp-72 Ti 0 4.646837 11.7 1 11.7 mp-1202079 Ti21Mn25 0 6.379829 291.2 46 6.33 mp-10721 Ti2C 0 4.439769 23.522 3 7.84 mp-742 Ti2Cu 0 5.72218 29.4 3 9.8 mp-30671 Ti2Ga 0 5.649652 171.4 3 57.13 mp-30673 Ti2Ga3 0 6.382991 467.4 5 93.48 mp-861983 Ti2MnFe 0 6.549537 25.644 4 6.41 mp-8282 Ti2N 0 4.881545 23.54 3 7.85 mp-1808 Ti2Ni 0 5.725014 37.3 3 12.43 mp-1014229 Ti2Zn 0 5.462442 25.95 3 8.65 mp-1823 Ti3Al 0 4.248869 36.89 4 9.22 mp-1025170 Ti3B4 0 4.557548 49.82 7 7.12 mp-2643 Ti3Cu4 0 6.7483 59.1 7 8.44 mp-30672 Ti3Ga 0 5.416551 183.1 4 45.77 mp-5659 Ti3SiC2 0 4.474908 37.044 6 6.17 mp-1079460 Ti3Sn 0 6.048169 53.8 4 13.45 mp-2108 Ti5Si3 0 4.347039 63.6 8 7.95 mp-995201 Ti5Si3C 0 4.457871 63.722 9 7.08 mp-505527 Ti5Si4 0 4.254735 65.3 9 7.26 mp-11750 Ti6Si2B 0 4.445879 77.28 9 8.59 mp-27919 Ti8C5 0 4.541438 94.21 13 7.25 mp-1953 TiAl 0 3.833902 13.49 2 6.74 mp-567705 TiAl2 0 3.536391 15.28 3 5.09 mp-542915 TiAl3 0 3.365706 17.07 4 4.27 mp-7857 TiB 0 4.575881 15.38 2 7.69 mp-1145 TiB2 0 4.487425 19.06 3 6.35 mp-631 TiC 0 4.879907 11.822 2 5.91 mp-568636 TiCr2 0 6.234566 30.5 3 10.17 mp-2078 TiCu 0 6.440936 17.7 2 8.85 mp-12546 TiCu3 0 7.648118 29.7 4 7.42 mp-1188441 TiCu4 0 7.892997 35.7 5 7.14 mp-305 TiFe 0 6.642035 12.124 2 6.06 mp-866141 TiFe2Si 0.4023 6.758128 14.248 4 3.56 mp-8648 TiFeSi 0 5.624878 13.824 3 4.61 mp-21662 TiFeSi2 0 5.143236 15.524 4 3.88 mp-2767 TiGa 0 6.197683 159.7 2 79.85 mp-571342 TiGa2 0 6.575088 307.7 3 102.57 mp-1949 TiMn2 0 6.901374 15.34 3 5.11 mp-865652 TiMn2Si 0 6.352313 17.04 4 4.26 mp-865656 TiMn2W 0 10.69469 50.64 4 12.66 mp-21606 TiMnSi2 0 4.998157 16.92 4 4.23 mp-492 TiN 0 5.340297 11.84 2 5.92 mp-1048 TiNi 0 6.412986 25.6 2 12.8 mp-1409 TiNi3 0 7.95813 53.4 4 13.35 mp-7092 TiSi 0 4.224309 13.4 2 6.7 mp-1077503 TiSi2 0 4.027105 15.1 3 5.03 mp-1216621 TiW 0 11.85553 47 2 23.5 mp-1014230 TiZn 0 6.036543 14.25 2 7.12 mp-21289 TiZn3 0 6.69766 19.35 4 4.84 mp-146 V 0 6.312904 385 1 385 mp-1216643 V10Si6B 0 5.323133 3863.88 17 227.29 mp-9208 V2B3 0 5.360224 781.04 5 156.21 mp-20648 V2C 0 5.741138 770.122 3 256.71 mp-33090 V2N 0 6.096388 770.14 3 256.71 mp-2091 V3B2 0 5.846065 1162.36 5 232.47 mp-569270 V3B4 0 5.426881 1169.72 7 167.1 mp-1585 V3Co 0 6.985027 1187.8 4 296.95 mp-1187695 V3Cr 0 6.599356 1164.4 4 291.1 mp-1216481 V3Cr3Si2 0 6.213883 1186.6 8 148.33 mp-1079399 V3Fe 0 6.896938 1155.424 4 288.86 mp-972071 V3Mo 0 7.371335 1195.1 4 298.77 mp-7226 V3Ni 0 6.898755 1168.9 4 292.23 mp-1216708 V3Ni2 0 7.272789 1182.8 5 236.56 mp-2567 V3Si 0 5.778142 1156.7 4 289.18 mp-30883 V4Zn5 0 6.973256 1552.75 9 172.53 mp-1206441 V5B6 0 5.503664 1947.08 11 177.01 mp-568671 V5Si3 0 5.379232 1930.1 8 241.26 mp-10126 V5SiB2 0 5.621738 1934.06 8 241.76 mp-28731 V6C5 0 5.617823 2310.61 11 210.06 mp-1188283 V8N 0 6.188838 3080.14 9 342.24 mp-1216445 V9Cr3B8 0 6.010542 3522.64 20 176.13 mp-9973 VB 0 5.631694 388.68 2 194.34 mp-1491 VB2 0 5.108571 392.36 3 130.79 mp-542614 VCo3 0 8.70633 483.4 4 120.85 mp-1216394 VCr 0 6.919501 394.4 2 197.2 mp-1187696 VCr3 0 7.195388 413.2 4 103.3 mp-866134 VFe3 0 7.739815 386.272 4 96.57 mp-1018027 VN 0 6.23865 385.14 2 192.57 mp-11531 VNi2 0 8.166036 412.8 3 137.6 mp-171 VNi3 0 8.437749 426.7 4 106.67 mp-10711 VSi2 0 4.640836 388.4 3 129.47 mp-1216231 VW 0 13.07376 420.3 2 210.15 mp-1187702 VW3 0 16.12824 490.9 4 122.72 mp-11578 VZn3 0 7.294936 392.65 4 98.16 mp-91 W 0 18.85401 35.3 1 35.3 mp-1894 WC 0 15.35037 35.422 2 17.71 mp-1187739 Y 0 4.54735 31 1 31 mp-1199133 Y11Sn10 0 6.169806 528 21 25.14 mp-1334 Y2C 0 4.535818 62.122 3 20.71 mp-21294 Y2In 0 5.66966 229 3 76.33 mp-1200613 Y3C4 0 4.91445 93.488 7 13.36 mp-1105835 Y3In5 0 6.657923 928 8 116 mp-9459 Y4C5 0 4.729248 124.61 9 13.85 mp-1200885 Y4C7 0.6144 4.541711 124.854 11 11.35 mp-1188292 Y5Pb3 0 7.410237 161 8 20.12 mp-2538 Y5Si3 0 4.436242 160.1 8 20.01 mp-567412 Y5Sn3 0 5.778886 211.1 8 26.39 mp-1188434 Y5Tl3 0 7.379251 12755 8 1594.38 mp-972364 Yb 0 7.005867 17.1 1 17.1 mp-1542 YB2 0 5.045298 38.36 3 12.79 mp-9546 Yb2C3 0 8.72673 34.566 5 6.91 mp-11544 Yb2Pb 0 9.844348 36.2 3 12.07 mp-1207599 Yb2Si 0.0437 7.742296 35.9 3 11.97 mp-570050 Yb2Sn 0 8.771931 52.9 3 17.63 mp-864675 Yb3N2 0.4892 10.30057 51.58 5 10.32 mp-637 YB4 0 4.308482 45.72 5 9.14 mp-1189298 YbB4 0 6.949843 31.82 5 6.36 mp-419 YbB6 0.1059 5.614594 39.18 7 5.6 mp-1103975 YbC6 0 5.687259 17.832 7 2.55 mp-1857 YbCd 0 8.562931 19.83 2 9.92 mp-1187653 YbCd3 0 8.670607 25.29 4 6.32 mp-1937 YbCu 0 9.051708 23.1 2 11.55 mp-567538 YbCu2 0 9.550794 29.1 3 9.7 mp-1607 YbCu5 0 9.333349 47.1 6 7.85 mp-864757 YbN2 0 8.325277 17.38 3 5.79 mp-10651 YbSi 0 7.137531 18.8 2 9.4 mp-1077404 YbSi2 0 6.315081 20.5 3 6.83 mp-915 YCd 0 6.30281 33.73 2 16.86 mp-1331 YCd2 0 6.972865 36.46 3 12.15 mp-1080443 YCu 0 5.830094 37 2 18.5 mp-2698 YCu2 0 6.706395 43 3 14.33 mp-2797 YCu5 0 7.535186 61 6 10.17 mp-2399 YHg 0 9.24362 61.2 2 30.6 mp-22704 YIn 0 6.291689 198 2 99 mp-615 YMg 0 3.419334 33.32 2 16.66 mp-1188082 YMg149 0.2723 1.786909 376.68 150 2.51 mp-865376 YMg3 0 2.731204 37.96 4 9.49 mp-2114 YN 0.2858 5.742757 31.14 2 15.57 mp-9972 YSi 0 4.464026 32.7 2 16.35 mp-22179 YTiSi 0 4.422839 44.4 3 14.8 mp-11575 YTl 0 8.800691 4231 2 2115.5 mp-131 Zr 0 6.446092 37.1 1 37.1 mp-684623 Zr10C9 0 6.396417 372.098 19 19.58 mp-1216441 Zr14Cu51 0 8.184391 825.4 65 12.7 mp-2544 Zr2Be17 0 3.115806 14643.2 19 770.69 mp-1018104 Zr2Cd 0 7.235683 76.93 3 25.64 mp-628 Zr2Co 0 7.170771 107 3 35.67 mp-193 Zr2Cu 0 6.968518 80.2 3 26.73 mp-1215517 Zr2MnFe3 0 7.605015 77.292 6 12.88 mp-1014265 Zr2N 0 6.644609 74.34 3 24.78 mp-328 Zr2Ni 0 7.189329 88.1 3 29.37 mp-2717 Zr2Ni7 0 8.441843 171.5 9 19.06 mp-1278 Zr2Si 0 5.972091 75.9 3 25.3 mp-31310 Zr3(Mn2Si3)2 0 5.882738 128.78 13 9.91 mp-30619 Zr3Co 0 6.915076 144.1 4 36.03 mp-31205 Zr3Fe 0 6.808805 111.724 4 27.93 mp-277 Zr3N4 1.2736 6.14326 111.86 7 15.98 mp-1188062 Zr3Sc 0 5.604938 3571.3 4 892.83 mp-1207024 Zr3Si2 0 5.812221 114.7 5 22.94 mp-1215386 Zr3Ti2Si3 0 5.343721 139.8 8 17.48 mp-17435 Zr4Fe4Si7 0 6.038802 161.996 15 10.8 mp-1106020 Zr5SiSn3 0 7.175692 243.3 9 27.03 mp-510522 Zr5Sn3 0 7.32854 241.6 8 30.2 mp-543001 Zr5Sn4 0 7.607774 260.3 9 28.92 mp-30569 Zr6Co23 0 8.29963 977 29 33.69 mp-1192960 Zr6Fe16Si7 0 7.260913 241.284 29 8.32 mp-582924 Zr6Fe23 0 7.603507 232.352 29 8.01 mp-1188077 Zr7Cu10 0 7.760948 319.7 17 18.81 mp-1472 ZrB2 0 6.033105 44.46 3 14.82 mp-30445 ZrBe13 0 2.771776 11178.1 14 798.44 mp-11283 ZrBe5 0 3.623394 4322.1 6 720.35 mp-2795 ZrC 0 6.502964 37.222 2 18.61 mp-2283 ZrCo 0 7.64963 69.9 2 34.95 mp-929 ZrCo2 0 8.422444 102.7 3 34.23 mp-1190681 ZrFe2 0 7.666415 37.948 3 12.65 mp-1102452 ZrFeSi 0 6.48392 39.224 3 13.07 mp-2116 ZrMn2 0 7.670876 40.74 3 13.58 mp-2049 ZrMo2 0 8.470044 117.3 3 39.1 mp-1352 ZrN 0 7.098978 37.24 2 18.62 mp-556 ZrNi 0 7.396409 51 2 25.5 mp-485 ZrNi3 0 8.426585 78.8 4 19.7 mp-1077791 ZrSc2 0 4.159366 6957.1 3 2319.03 mp-893 ZrSi 0 5.562651 38.8 2 19.4 mp-1515 ZrSi2 0 4.846511 40.5 3 13.5 mp-675 ZrW2 0 13.52059 107.7 3 35.9 mp-570276 ZrZn 0.0231 6.949384 39.65 2 19.82 mp-1401 ZrZn2 0 7.229958 42.2 3 14.07 mp-864889 ZrZn3 0 7.245114 44.75 4 11.19 mp-134 Al 0 2.720049585 1.79 1 1.79 mp-10010 Al(CoSi)2 0 5.38758579 70.79 5 14.16 mp-1214980 Al11(CoSi)6 0 4.376129548 226.69 23 9.86 mp-11227 Al12W 0 3.857812654 56.78 13 4.37 mp-29110 Al2(FeSi)3 0.2303 5.163780949 9.952 8 1.24 mp-568153 Al22Mo5 0 4.244948798 239.88 27 8.88 mp-530274 Al23B50 0 3.044723378 225.17 73 3.08 mp-985806 Al2Cu 0 4.064939117 9.58 3 3.19 mp-1214851 Al3Co3Si4 0 4.618943212 110.57 10 11.06 mp-867780 Al3Cr 0 3.815305682 14.77 4 3.69 mp-1190708 Al3Fe2Si 0 4.725578345 7.918 6 1.32 mp-622209 Al3Ni 0 4.034331992 19.27 4 4.82 mp-1057 Al3Ni2 0 4.767798907 33.17 5 6.63 mp-16514 Al3Ni5 0 6.717313154 74.87 8 9.36 mp-31019 Al45Cr7 0 3.226501467 146.35 52 2.81 mp-1591 Al4C3 1.3422 2.930804107 7.526 7 1.08 mp-593 Al4Cu9 0 6.853922942 61.16 13 4.7 mp-16515 Al4Ni3 0 5.093005275 48.86 7 6.98 mp-1229054 Al53Fe17Si12 0 3.847798315 122.478 82 1.49 mp-196 Al5Co2 0 4.338445784 74.55 7 10.65 mp-30337 Al5W 0 5.700302322 44.25 6 7.38 mp-570001 Al6Fe 0 3.428138324 11.164 7 1.59 mp-1229249 Al79(Fe13Si9)2 0 3.829625029 183.034 123 1.49 mp-2733 Al8Mo3 0 5.003746922 134.62 11 12.24 mp-16488 Al9Co2 0 3.608519273 81.71 11 7.43 mp-284 AlCo 0 6.136768975 34.59 2 17.29 mp-1699 AlCr2 0 5.748722101 20.59 3 6.86 mp-2500 AlCu 0 5.356855143 7.79 2 3.9 mp-12802 AlCu3 0 7.287481775 19.79 4 4.95 mp-2658 AlFe 0 5.791723495 2.214 2 1.11 mp-867878 AlFe2Si 0 6.289050137 4.338 4 1.08 mp-1183162 AlFe3 0 6.647849573 3.062 4 0.77 mp-259 AlMo3 0 8.470007673 122.09 4 30.52 mp-1487 AlNi 0 5.906844592 15.69 2 7.85 mp-2593 AlNi3 0 7.466731653 43.49 4 10.87 mp-1228043 AlSiNi2 0 6.061604569 31.29 4 7.82 mp-1228041 AlSiNi6 0 7.76613683 86.89 8 10.86 mp-576 B13C2 0 2.438647853 48.084 15 3.21 mp-122 Ba 0 3.583054105 0.275 1 0.28 mp-5506 Ba(AlSi)2 0 3.475027368 7.255 5 1.45 mp-1029457 Ba(CoN)2 0 5.554370311 66.155 5 13.23 mp-567701 Ba21Al40 0 3.884212974 77.375 61 1.27 mp-8093 Ba2Cd 0 4.503963702 3.28 3 1.09 mp-8094 Ba2Hg 0 5.677447644 30.75 3 10.25 mp-1892 Ba2N 0 4.403707635 0.69 3 0.23 mp-9905 Ba2Si 0.0553 4.278608479 2.25 3 0.75 mp-1981 Ba2Sn 0.0155 4.834448032 19.25 3 6.42 mp-1018178 Ba2Zn 0 4.272596092 3.1 3 1.03 mp-9578 Ba3(AlSi)2 0 3.898587575 7.805 7 1.11 mp-10736 Ba3N 0 3.84449865 0.965 4 0.24 mp-1619 Ba3Si4 0.0012 3.952256738 7.625 7 1.09 mp-2631 Ba4Al5 0 3.901346877 10.05 9 1.12 mp-570400 Ba7Al10 0 3.91077423 19.825 17 1.17 mp-30429 Ba8Ga7 0 4.702519133 1038.2 15 69.21 mp-28685 Ba8Ni6N7 0 5.519552142 86.58 21 4.12 mp-1105101 Ba9In4 0 4.681514321 670.475 13 51.58 mp-1903 BaAl4 0 3.425431948 7.435 5 1.49 mp-13149 BaAlSi 0 3.806505582 3.765 3 1.25 mp-954 BaB6 0.0623 4.281989038 22.355 7 3.19 mp-1214417 BaC6 0 3.961948599 1.007 7 0.14 mp-16253 BaCaSi 0.1767 3.413083529 4.325 3 1.44 mp-527 BaCd 0 5.290471212 3.005 2 1.5 mp-11266 BaCd2 0 6.057559503 5.735 3 1.91 mp-505765 BaCoN 0 5.562269068 33.215 3 11.07 mp-30428 BaCu 0 4.510555041 6.275 2 3.14 mp-29199 BaCuN 0.0476 5.610479725 6.415 3 2.14 mp-1219 BaGa2 0 5.173339705 296.275 3 98.76 mp-335 BaGa4 0 5.942574395 592.275 5 118.45 mp-2197 BaHg 0 7.458274924 30.475 2 15.24 mp-31509 BaIn 0 5.565138269 167.275 2 83.64 mp-22141 BaIn2 0 6.050442559 334.275 3 111.42 mp-210 BaLi4 0 1.84849371 342.675 5 68.53 mp-1001 BaN2 0 4.760885188 0.555 3 0.19 mp-1247744 BaNa 0 2.601470147 3.705 2 1.85 mp-11820 BaNa2 0 2.217756088 7.135 3 2.38 mp-21653 BaNiN 0 5.723687745 14.315 3 4.77 mp-1067235 BaSi 0 4.286153704 1.975 2 0.99 mp-1477 BaSi2 0.791 3.628158493 3.675 3 1.22 mp-872 BaSn 0 5.2426579 18.975 2 9.49 mp-672225 BaZn13 0 6.875821892 33.425 14 2.39 mp-30435 BaZn2 0 5.504924829 5.375 3 1.79 mp-303 BaZn5 0 6.23064523 13.025 6 2.17 mp-87 Be 0 1.895724397 857 1 857 mp-1569 Be2C 1.4433 2.461261614 1714.122 3 571.37 mp-1183425 Be3Co 0 4.301352688 2603.8 4 650.95 mp-865168 Be3Ni 0 4.213290212 2584.9 4 646.23 mp-27757 Be4B 0 1.981767282 3431.68 5 686.34 mp-1071690 Be5Co 0 3.603654583 4317.8 6 719.63 mp-2773 BeCo 0 6.479698338 889.8 2 444.9 mp-1033 BeNi 0 6.359073941 870.9 2 435.45 mp-132 Ca 0 1.569030745 2.35 1 2.35 mp-7704 Ca(AlSi)2 0 2.347097201 9.33 5 1.87 mp-12614 Ca2Cu 0 2.62950025 10.7 3 3.57 mp-2686 Ca2N 0 2.161682878 4.84 3 1.61 mp-2517 Ca2Si 0.2915 2.165187656 6.4 3 2.13 mp-844 Ca3N2 1.1111 2.606386489 7.33 5 1.47 mp-640340 Ca4MgAl3 0 2.018737185 17.09 8 2.14 mp-1246246 Ca5(CuN2)2 0.3018 3.194817732 24.31 11 2.21 mp-793 Ca5Si3 0 2.188848043 16.85 8 2.11 mp-1190736 Ca8Al3 0 1.895135766 24.17 11 2.2 mp-2404 CaAl2 0 2.425284826 5.93 3 1.98 mp-570150 CaAlSi 0 2.354365379 5.84 3 1.95 mp-1213975 CaB4 0 2.631299144 17.07 5 3.41 mp-865 CaB6 0.1835 2.437995559 24.43 7 3.49 mp-1845 CaBe13 0 1.9473521 11143.35 14 795.95 mp-585949 CaCu 0 3.622394066 8.35 2 4.17 mp-1882 CaCu5 0 6.536938774 32.35 6 5.39 mp-1039148 CaMg 0 1.713629157 4.67 2 2.33 mp-1184449 CaMg149 0.499 1.754974539 348.03 150 2.32 mp-2432 CaMg2 0 1.731927308 6.99 3 2.33 mp-5473 CaMgSi 0.0159 2.228699165 6.37 3 2.12 mp-2295 CaNi2 0 5.661732669 30.15 3 10.05 mp-774 CaNi5 0 6.747575602 71.85 6 11.97 mp-28645 CaNiN 0 4.185006623 16.39 3 5.46 mp-1563 CaSi 0 2.377161219 4.05 2 2.02 mp-567332 Ce 0 8.91786665 4.71 1 4.71 mp-1229288 Ce15Ni32 0 9.091934601 515.45 47 10.97 mp-20181 Ce2C3 0 7.074733812 9.786 5 1.96 mp-1204381 Ce2Ni7 0 8.991082761 106.72 9 11.86 mp-1213865 Ce3Al11 0 4.225938114 33.82 14 2.42 mp-570175 Ce5Si3 0 6.736034132 28.65 8 3.58 mp-1196829 Ce5Si4 0 6.040717659 30.35 9 3.37 mp-2088 CeAl2 0 5.124395241 8.29 3 2.76 mp-567305 CeAl3 0 4.43938026 10.08 4 2.52 mp-1206597 CeAlSi 0 5.005790027 8.2 3 2.73 mp-1112 CeCo2 0 9.701049231 70.31 3 23.44 mp-2801 CeCu2 0 8.065457036 16.71 3 5.57 mp-581942 CeCu6 0 8.455393218 40.71 7 5.82 mp-11317 CeFe5 0 7.942087595 6.83 6 1.14 mp-1039345 CeMg2 0 4.198993993 9.35 3 3.12 mp-1038976 CeMg5 0 3.070870412 16.31 6 2.72 mp-2493 CeN 0 7.942475673 4.85 2 2.42 mp-21188 CeNi 0 8.086557052 18.61 2 9.3 mp-1654 CeNi2 0 9.264253029 32.51 3 10.84 mp-580354 CeNi3 0 9.035774819 46.41 4 11.6 mp-1910 CeNi5 0 8.791113399 74.21 6 12.37 mp-21115 CeSi 0 6.016046899 6.41 2 3.21 mp-1898 CeSi2 0 5.496004683 8.11 3 2.7 mp-54 Co 0 8.959676195 32.8 1 32.8 mp-19905 Co2Si 0 7.586966265 67.3 3 22.43 mp-1139 Co3Mo 0 9.788205563 138.5 4 34.62 mp-2157 Co3W 0 12.92411922 133.7 4 33.42 mp-20857 CoB 0 7.456589549 36.48 2 18.24 mp-7577 CoSi 0 6.633920595 34.5 2 17.25 mp-2379 CoSi2 0 4.964463565 36.2 3 12.07 mp-90 Cr 0 7.274080971 9.4 1 9.4 mp-723 Cr23C6 0 7.16779993 216.932 29 7.48 mp-8780 Cr2N 0 6.723825369 18.94 3 6.31 mp-20937 Cr3C2 0 6.795180146 28.444 5 5.69 mp-729 Cr3Si 0 6.625100709 29.9 4 7.48 mp-1196316 Cr7C3 0 7.055496191 66.166 10 6.62 mp-1183691 CrN 0 6.76302146 9.54 2 4.77 mp-784631 CrNi2 0 8.620907303 37.2 3 12.4 mp-8937 CrSi2 0 5.015722574 12.8 3 4.27 mp-1184151 Cs 0.1362 1.885761278 61800 1 61800 mp-1199908 Cs7NaSi8 1.5761 3.100640339 432617.03 16 27038.56 mp-1200207 Cs8Ga11 0 3.984785705 496028 19 26106.74 mp-28861 CsC8 0 2.893417416 61800.976 9 6866.78 mp-571056 CsSn 1.1371 4.131016431 61818.7 2 30909.35 mp-30 Cu 0 8.888274633 6 1 6 mp-14266 Cu15Si4 0 7.743605225 96.8 19 5.09 mp-1184115 Er 0 9.037772387 26.4 1 26.4 mp-1225044 Er2C 0 8.678709228 52.922 3 17.64 mp-1203719 Er3C4 0 8.934402703 79.688 7 11.38 mp-31167 Er5Si3 0 8.045292568 137.1 8 17.14 mp-1955 ErCu 0 9.463506465 32.4 2 16.2 mp-1024991 ErCu2 0 9.341567898 38.4 3 12.8 mp-30579 ErCu5 0 9.420409229 56.4 6 9.4 mp-19830 ErN 0.2716 10.56582866 26.54 2 13.27 mp-378 ErSi 0 7.710453561 28.1 2 14.05 mp-1057315 Eu 0 6.086594594 31.4 1 31.4 mp-1190061 Eu5Si3 0 6.153676988 162.1 8 20.26 mp-1103990 EuC6 0 4.7983116 32.132 7 4.59 mp-1087547 EuCu 0 7.049617849 37.4 2 18.7 mp-1071732 EuCu2 0 7.840235157 43.4 3 14.47 mp-2066 EuCu5 0 8.36925336 61.4 6 10.23 mp-21279 EuSi 0 5.904326861 33.1 2 16.55 mp-1072248 EuSi2 0 5.454985613 34.8 3 11.6 mp-13 Fe 0 8.096264696 0.424 1 0.42 mp-601848 Fe11Co5 0 8.108531664 168.664 16 10.54 mp-1915 Fe2B 0 7.490316494 4.528 3 1.51 mp-1194531 Fe2B7 0 4.813417026 26.608 9 2.96 mp-601820 Fe3Co 0 8.136129184 34.072 4 8.52 mp-1804 Fe3N 0 7.421215908 1.412 4 0.35 mp-2199 Fe3Si 0 7.388613931 2.972 4 0.74 mp-601842 Fe9Co7 0 8.206826997 233.416 16 14.59 mp-1080525 FeB 0 6.887696687 4.104 2 2.05 mp-2090 FeCo 0 8.290362741 33.224 2 16.61 mp-6988 FeN 0 6.127073258 0.564 2 0.28 mp-2213 FeNi 0 8.452470899 14.324 2 7.16 mp-1418 FeNi3 0 8.700535754 42.124 4 10.53 mp-871 FeSi 0.1664 6.333879998 2.124 2 1.06 mp-1714 FeSi2 0.6976 4.958877558 3.824 3 1.27 mp-20559 Ga3Co 0 7.003885998 476.8 4 119.2 mp-636368 Ga3Fe 0.575 6.809894312 444.424 4 111.11 mp-1197621 Ga4Cu9 0 8.454861321 646 13 49.69 mp-1121 GaCo 0 8.876587419 180.8 2 90.4 mp-1183995 GaCu3 0 8.629827313 166 4 41.5 mp-19870 GaFe3 0 8.032436581 149.272 4 37.32 mp-804 GaN 1.7376 5.923650599 148.14 2 74.07 mp-155 Gd 0 8.001978666 28.6 1 28.6 mp-28366 Gd2B5 0 6.836473994 75.6 7 10.8 mp-1224869 Gd2C 0 7.676989498 57.322 3 19.11 mp-1189998 Gd2C3 0 7.992746631 57.566 5 11.51 mp-1199486 Gd5Si4 0 6.902406182 149.8 9 16.64 mp-1105563 GdB4 0 6.464597962 43.32 5 8.66 mp-22266 GdB6 0 5.311473692 50.68 7 7.24 mp-614455 GdCu 0 8.506837674 34.6 2 17.3 mp-1077933 GdCu2 0 8.348842083 40.6 3 13.53 mp-636253 GdCu5 0 8.925302406 58.6 6 9.77 mp-601371 GdSi 0 6.899144562 30.3 2 15.15 mp-21192 GdSi2 0 6.050125559 32 3 10.67 mp-103 Hf 0 13.1832226 900 1 900 mp-1224756 Hf14Cu51 0 10.75330004 12906 65 198.55 mp-30581 Hf2Cu 0 12.40423989 1806 3 602 mp-7353 Hf3Cu8 0 10.98413983 2748 11 249.82 mp-1200988 Hf7Cu10 0 11.4017787 6360 17 374.12 mp-21075 HfC 0 12.57416771 900.122 2 450.06 mp-1185513 HfMg149 0.1369 1.836793837 1245.68 150 8.3 mp-11449 HfMn2 0 11.30554994 903.64 3 301.21 mp-2363 HfMo2 0 11.27480816 980.2 3 326.73 mp-1018056 HfNi 0 12.18394482 913.9 2 456.95 mp-12174 HfNi3 0 11.44805813 941.7 4 235.43 mp-10659 Ho 0 8.822554243 57.1 1 57.1 mp-5835 Ho(CoSi)2 0 7.719283863 126.1 5 25.22 mp-569851 Ho10Si17 0 6.713993228 599.9 27 22.22 mp-30969 Ho12Co7 0 9.630259551 914.8 19 48.15 mp-1640 Ho2C 0 8.412835248 114.322 3 38.11 mp-977345 Ho2Co3Si5 0 7.221989364 221.1 10 22.11 mp-1202754 Ho3C4 0 8.700157642 171.788 7 24.54 mp-622565 Ho3Co 0 9.19085619 204.1 4 51.03 mp-15238 Ho4C5 0 8.4097617 229.01 9 25.45 mp-1154 Ho4C7 0.5867 7.857241425 229.254 11 20.84 mp-1203317 Ho5(Co2Si7)2 0 6.55275451 440.5 23 19.15 mp-13236 Ho5Si3 0 7.80740996 290.6 8 36.33 mp-1193889 HoBe13 0 3.576271217 11198.1 14 799.86 mp-2396 HoCo2 0 10.22290726 122.7 3 40.9 mp-2435 HoCo5 0 9.268919768 221.1 6 36.85 mp-510688 HoCoSi 0 8.468342148 91.6 3 30.53 mp-1971 HoCu 0 9.2535428 63.1 2 31.55 mp-30584 HoCu2 0 9.05706546 69.1 3 23.03 mp-30585 HoCu5 0 9.039159021 87.1 6 14.52 mp-883 HoN 0.2401 10.23272256 57.24 2 28.62 mp-12899 HoSi 0 7.513612499 58.8 2 29.4 mp-19876 InNi 0 8.211460739 180.9 2 90.45 mp-1184905 K 0 0.868387443 13.6 1 13.6 mp-1212012 K10Tl7 0 3.784372673 29536 17 1737.41 mp-1029850 K15Cr7N19 0.8138 2.722030031 272.46 41 6.65 mp-1029869 K15Mo7N19 1.372 3.041028409 487.36 41 11.89 mp-1030950 K15W7N19 1.5737 4.208765957 453.76 41 11.07 mp-1197369 K16Na9(Tl6Cd)3 0 4.704089312 75856.66 46 1649.06 mp-1225049 K18Na46Tl31 0 3.927045378 130602.58 95 1374.76 mp-504498 K2CdPb 0.0295 4.072717098 31.93 4 7.98 mp-1079679 K2CdSn 0.0811 3.278764613 48.63 4 12.16 mp-568052 K2Ga3 0.2755 3.30315191 471.2 5 94.24 mp-1087476 K2Mg5Sn3 0 3.121450804 94.9 10 9.49 mp-1246385 K2MnN2 0 2.63171743 29.3 5 5.86 mp-1211956 K2Na4ZnSn2 0 2.673871555 80.87 9 8.99 mp-1202778 K3Cd16 0 6.101150525 84.48 19 4.45 mp-3949 K7LiSi8 1.693 1.69342103 194.4 16 12.15 mp-582929 K8In11 0 3.431014453 1945.8 19 102.41 mp-1076 KB6 0 2.288806586 35.68 7 5.1 mp-28930 KC8 0 1.94998649 14.576 9 1.62 mp-1029673 KCrN2 0 3.068116666 23.28 4 5.82 mp-11462 KHg 0 4.967016325 43.8 2 21.9 mp-1019888 KNa2BN2 1.8907 2.181667813 24.42 6 4.07 mp-1223632 KNa2WN3 2.0295 4.291152456 56.18 7 8.03 mp-1029504 KNbN2 2.0359 3.538072207 99.48 4 24.87 mp-21526 KPb 0.3735 4.934516761 15.6 2 7.8 mp-1217 KSi 1.2619 1.742991866 15.3 2 7.65 mp-542374 KSn 0.7335 3.342551901 32.3 2 16.15 mp-570755 KTaN2 2.6564 5.478996242 325.88 4 81.47 mp-1080848 KVN2 0.895 2.980739473 398.88 4 99.72 mp-784 KZn13 0 6.227279729 46.75 14 3.34 mp-1018134 Li 0 0.57309457 85.6 1 85.6 mp-510430 Li13In3 0 2.471080344 1613.8 16 100.86 mp-672287 Li13Si4 0 1.28359662 1119.6 17 65.86 mp-1222798 Li14MgSi4 0.1059 1.286983594 1207.52 19 63.55 mp-574275 Li17Pb4 0 3.961250168 1463.2 21 69.68 mp-573471 Li17Sn4 0 2.589548849 1530 21 72.86 mp-29720 Li21Si5 0 1.194591756 1806.1 26 69.47 mp-1210753 Li2Al 0 1.381340819 172.99 3 57.66 mp-570466 Li2Ca 0 1.083251032 173.55 3 57.85 mp-865965 Li2CaSi 0 1.924169662 175.25 4 43.81 mp-29210 Li2Ga 0 2.981136533 319.2 3 106.4 mp-31324 Li2In 0 3.818917214 338.2 3 112.73 mp-1105932 Li2MgSi 0.218 1.705165271 175.22 4 43.8 mp-16506 Li3Al2 0 1.538620171 260.38 5 52.08 mp-9568 Li3Ga2 0 3.489024203 552.8 5 110.56 mp-867226 Li3In 0 3.062220684 423.8 4 105.95 mp-21293 Li3In2 0 4.325351176 590.8 5 118.16 mp-1094591 Li3Mg 0 0.919301997 259.12 4 64.78 mp-2251 Li3N 0.9986 1.288608955 256.94 4 64.23 mp-30760 Li3Pb 0 5.056392137 258.8 4 64.7 mp-1185265 Li3Sn 0 3.260207542 275.5 4 68.87 mp-7396 Li3Tl 0 5.009351079 4456.8 4 1114.2 mp-1205930 Li5Ga4 0 3.760162948 1020 9 113.33 mp-30766 Li5Sn2 0 3.555816317 465.4 7 66.49 mp-12283 Li5Tl2 0 5.534063942 8828 7 1261.14 mp-30761 Li7Pb2 0 4.575943292 603.2 9 67.02 mp-1201871 Li7Si3 0 1.477568272 604.3 10 60.43 mp-30767 Li7Sn2 0 2.974647662 636.6 9 70.73 mp-1067 LiAl 0 1.754628439 87.39 2 43.7 mp-10890 LiAl3 0 2.237074984 90.97 4 22.74 mp-8204 LiAlB14 1.2932 2.498475464 138.91 16 8.68 mp-3161 LiAlSi 0.1426 1.966694453 89.09 3 29.7 mp-1001835 LiB 0 1.356921364 89.28 2 44.64 mp-1222413 LiB3 0.088 1.75619417 96.64 4 24.16 mp-20150 LiCa2Si3 0 2.202979398 95.4 6 15.9 mp-13916 LiCaSi2 0 2.129596173 91.35 4 22.84 mp-862658 LiCu3 0 6.929195303 103.6 4 25.9 mp-1094889 LiMg 0 1.294794498 87.92 2 43.96 mp-866755 LiMg149 0 1.744050353 431.28 150 2.88 mp-973374 LiMg2 0 1.425083488 90.24 3 30.08 mp-1934 LiZn 0 4.082778098 88.15 2 44.07 mp-975799 LiZn3 0 5.754870182 93.25 4 23.31 mp-1094122 Mg 0 1.774055192 2.32 1 2.32 mp-1185596 Mg149Al 0.5011 1.77253796 347.47 150 2.32 mp-1185586 Mg149Be 0.5261 1.77064398 1202.68 150 8.02 mp-1185585 Mg149Cr 0.0245 1.776729495 355.08 150 2.37 mp-1185592 Mg149Fe 0.0779 1.770594214 346.104 150 2.31 mp-1185597 Mg149Ga 0.4779 1.801585231 493.68 150 3.29 mp-1185594 Mg149In 0.5296 1.800697333 512.68 150 3.42 mp-1185627 Mg149Mn 0.1095 1.788015279 347.5 150 2.32 mp-1185565 Mg149Mo 0.1504 1.806320945 385.78 150 2.57 mp-1185589 Mg149Nb 0.1185 1.797014383 431.28 150 2.88 mp-1185599 Mg149Ni 0.0151 1.78373815 359.58 150 2.4 mp-1185570 Mg149Pb 0.383 1.857156336 347.68 150 2.32 mp-1185634 Mg149Si 0.3404 1.772682413 347.38 150 2.32 mp-1185637 Mg149Sn 0.4181 1.816857545 364.38 150 2.43 mp-1185639 Mg149Ti 0.2003 1.784807173 357.38 150 2.38 mp-1185635 Mg149Tl 0.4888 1.861349358 4545.68 150 30.3 mp-1185641 Mg149V 0.0807 1.783943552 730.68 150 4.87 mp-1185642 Mg149Zn 0.578 1.775146575 348.23 150 2.32 mp-1185655 Mg149Zr 0.0334 1.80072545 382.78 150 2.55 mp-2151 Mg17Al12 0 2.094692395 60.92 29 2.1 mp-2481 Mg2Cu 0 3.429623958 10.64 3 3.55 mp-30650 Mg2Ga 0 3.211673152 152.64 3 50.88 mp-2137 Mg2Ni 0 3.481329007 18.54 3 6.18 mp-1367 Mg2Si 0.2935 1.975370396 6.34 3 2.11 mp-1559 Mg3N2 1.5099 2.66192851 7.24 5 1.45 mp-680671 Mg4Zn7 0 4.902721695 27.13 11 2.47 mp-1770 Mg5Ga2 0 2.981947262 307.6 7 43.94 mp-1094116 MgAl2 0 2.294860205 5.9 3 1.97 mp-763 MgB2 0 2.637300884 9.68 3 3.23 mp-365 MgB4 0.365 2.504415512 17.04 5 3.41 mp-978275 MgB7 1.4635 2.618328347 28.08 8 3.51 mp-855 MgBe13 0 1.831684728 11143.32 14 795.95 mp-1038 MgCu2 0 5.816113247 14.32 3 4.77 mp-2675 MgNi2 0 6.032501485 30.12 3 10.04 mp-978269 MgZn2 0 5.080755055 7.42 3 2.47 mp-35 Mn 0 8.265241283 1.82 1 1.82 mp-542830 Mn23C6 0 7.843043604 42.592 29 1.47 mp-20318 Mn2B 0 7.609817023 7.32 3 2.44 mp-9981 Mn2N 0 6.987770318 3.78 3 1.26 mp-12659 Mn2Nb 0 8.479514449 89.24 3 29.75 mp-10118 Mn3B4 0 6.153079405 20.18 7 2.88 mp-20211 Mn3Si 0 7.078772648 7.16 4 1.79 mp-2856 Mn4Al11 0 4.068219269 26.97 15 1.8 mp-505622 Mn4N 0 7.329288096 7.42 5 1.48 mp-680339 Mn4Si7 0.8013 5.260600969 19.18 11 1.74 mp-21256 Mn7C3 0 7.858680097 13.106 10 1.31 mp-771 MnAl 0 5.127964867 3.61 2 1.81 mp-173 MnAl6 0 3.352783148 12.56 7 1.79 mp-1106184 MnB4 0 4.493457463 16.54 5 3.31 mp-1104792 MnBe12 0 2.58106982 10285.82 13 791.22 mp-11270 MnBe2 0 4.819797134 1715.82 3 571.94 mp-5529 MnFe2Si 0 7.393942888 4.368 4 1.09 mp-1221619 MnFeSi2 0 6.145428313 5.644 4 1.41 mp-1431 MnSi 0 5.972686451 3.52 2 1.76 mp-316 MnV 0 7.40626179 386.82 2 193.41 mp-864984 MnV3 0 6.851730115 1156.82 4 289.2 mp-129 Mo 0 10.02490812 40.1 1 40.1 mp-1552 Mo2C 0 8.943989697 80.322 3 26.77 mp-10172 Na 0 1.028520018 3.43 1 3.43 mp-21895 Na15Pb4 0 3.289669644 59.45 19 3.13 mp-30794 Na15Sn4 0 2.382357152 126.25 19 6.64 mp-31430 Na2In 0 2.931312327 173.86 3 57.95 mp-262 Na3B20 0 2.146002807 83.89 23 3.65 mp-28630 Na3BN2 1.6631 2.118291333 14.25 6 2.38 mp-983509 Na3Cd 0 2.461204784 13.02 4 3.26 mp-16839 Na3WN3 1.7694 4.43751207 46.01 7 6.57 mp-571095 Na7Ga13 0 4.12335022 1948.01 20 97.4 mp-541787 Na8Hg3 0 3.977038092 118.04 11 10.73 mp-27335 NaAlSi 0 2.069716943 6.92 3 2.31 mp-2315 NaB15 0 2.425916555 58.63 16 3.66 mp-1186271 NaMg149 0.5472 1.750188859 349.11 150 2.33 mp-75 Nb 0 8.427646884 85.6 1 85.6 mp-18427 Nb2Al 0 6.789453836 172.99 3 57.66 mp-1080021 Nb2B3 0 7.075689381 182.24 5 36.45 mp-569989 Nb2C 0 7.67375624 171.322 3 57.11 mp-1079585 Nb2N 0 8.022840826 171.34 3 57.11 mp-20689 Nb3B2 0 7.752632878 264.16 5 52.83 mp-10255 Nb3B4 0 7.190484651 271.52 7 38.79 mp-1326 Nb3Sn 0 8.694218122 275.5 4 68.87 mp-1192618 Nb4Fe4Si7 0 6.627655366 355.996 15 23.73 mp-13686 Nb5Si3 0 6.967600937 433.1 8 54.14 mp-2760 Nb6C5 0 7.503639379 514.21 11 46.75 mp-542995 Nb6Fe16Si7 0 7.716440808 532.284 29 18.35 mp-1842 NbAl3 0 4.501843514 90.97 4 22.74 mp-2580 NbB 0 7.429359441 89.28 2 44.64 mp-450 NbB2 0 6.793798027 92.96 3 30.99 mp-1221111 NbFe 0 8.52821509 86.024 2 43.01 mp-1192350 NbFe2 0 8.803120472 86.448 3 28.82 mp-1209887 NbFeSi 0 7.175613006 87.724 3 29.24 mp-1196167 NbFeSi2 0 6.407325461 89.424 4 22.36 mp-1220327 NbMo 0 9.231307465 125.7 2 62.85 mp-2634 NbN 0 7.984187333 85.74 2 42.87 mp-12104 NbSi2 0 5.577439821 89 3 29.67 mp-1220316 NbW 0 13.43138832 120.9 2 60.45 mp-123 Nd 0 6.758696201 57.5 1 57.5 mp-567415 Nd2B5 0 5.945180936 133.4 7 19.06 mp-1800 Nd2C3 0 6.738088162 115.366 5 23.07 mp-567735 Nd5Si3 0 6.280952658 292.6 8 36.58 mp-355 Nd5Si4 0 5.868754711 294.3 9 32.7 mp-1632 NdB4 0 5.768965554 72.22 5 14.44 mp-1929 NdB6 0 4.908783998 79.58 7 11.37 mp-13392 NdCu 0 7.323929471 63.5 2 31.75 mp-11852 NdCu2 0 7.992310976 69.5 3 23.17 mp-1140 NdCu5 0 8.263727547 87.5 6 14.58 mp-2599 NdN 0.4304 7.627429946 57.64 2 28.82 mp-9967 NdSi 0 5.927845124 59.2 2 29.6 mp-884 NdSi2 0 5.359050262 60.9 3 20.3 mp-23 Ni 0 9.047689544 13.9 1 13.9 mp-11506 Ni3Mo 0 9.512797164 81.8 4 20.45 mp-11507 Ni4Mo 0 9.438041633 95.7 5 19.14 mp-30811 Ni4W 0 11.89007194 90.9 5 18.18 mp-1179656 Rb 0 1.572308149 15500 1 15500 mp-568643 RbC8 0 2.448462356 15500.976 9 1722.33 mp-1187343 RbMg149 0.0213 1.764381967 15845.68 150 105.64 mp-67 Sc 0 3.023050896 3460 1 3460 mp-29941 Sc2C 0 3.118296979 6920.122 3 2306.71 mp-31348 Sc2In 0 4.870411778 7087 3 2362.33 mp-28733 Sc3C4 0 3.561973189 10380.488 7 1482.93 mp-27162 Sc3Co 0 3.959797526 10412.8 4 2603.2 mp-861910 Sc3Hg 0 6.095376435 10410.2 4 2602.55 mp-19713 Sc3In 0 4.443026391 10547 4 2636.75 mp-1186974 Sc3Tl 0 5.950770014 14580 4 3645 mp-15661 Sc4C3 0.4656 3.799358905 13840.366 7 1977.2 mp-7822 Sc5Si3 0 3.252082867 17305.1 8 2163.14 mp-17695 Sc5Sn3 0 5.104693989 17356.1 8 2169.51 mp-2252 ScB2 0 3.660544064 3467.36 3 1155.79 mp-2212 ScCo 0 5.682768497 3492.8 2 1746.4 mp-253 ScCo2 0 6.582231542 3525.6 3 1175.2 mp-1169 ScCu 0 5.222540494 3466 2 1733 mp-1018149 ScCu2 0 6.252104019 3472 3 1157.33 mp-11471 ScHg 0 9.281450893 3490.2 2 1745.1 mp-1207100 ScIn 0 5.84213774 3627 2 1813.5 mp-9969 ScSi 0 3.33611577 3461.7 2 1730.85 mp-27276 Si12Ni31 0 7.616395291 451.3 43 10.5 mp-2291 Si2Ni 0 4.724646143 17.3 3 5.77 mp-1620 Si2W 0 9.689780275 38.7 3 12.9 mp-569128 SiB3 1.4934 2.449973602 12.74 4 3.19 mp-568656 SiC 2.0411 3.171908241 1.822 2 0.91 mp-351 SiNi 0 5.981087135 15.6 2 7.8 mp-1118 SiNi2 0 7.347406647 29.5 3 9.83 mp-828 SiNi3 0 7.875710486 43.4 4 10.85 mp-86 Sm 0 7.336111094 13.9 1 13.9 mp-570421 Sm2B5 0 6.38117091 46.2 7 6.6 mp-1219177 Sm2C 0 6.96379353 27.922 3 9.31 mp-569335 Sm2C3 0 7.342820428 28.166 5 5.63 mp-1195872 Sm3Ga2 0 7.290128233 337.7 5 67.54 mp-1106373 Sm5Si3 0 6.518409369 74.6 8 9.32 mp-8546 SmB4 0 6.100418512 28.62 5 5.72 mp-6996 SmB6 0 5.111503219 35.98 7 5.14 mp-980769 SmCu 0 7.954064255 19.9 2 9.95 mp-1077154 SmCu2 0 8.113356985 25.9 3 8.63 mp-227 SmCu5 0 8.498335586 43.9 6 7.32 mp-477 SmGa2 0 7.243944997 309.9 3 103.3 mp-749 SmN 0.0215 8.356280164 14.04 2 7.02 mp-1025489 SmSi 0 6.372031659 15.6 2 7.8 mp-1187073 Sr 0 2.676562284 6.68 1 6.68 mp-705522 Sr28In11 0 3.772800964 2024.04 39 51.9 mp-1245 Sr2N 0 3.493077187 13.5 3 4.5 mp-1106 Sr2Si 0.3434 3.353462355 15.06 3 5.02 mp-978 Sr2Sn 0.1528 4.212174375 32.06 3 10.69 mp-542484 Sr5Cd3 0 4.068644836 41.59 8 5.2 mp-746 Sr5Si3 0 3.349595547 38.5 8 4.81 mp-17720 Sr5Sn3 0 4.296218632 89.5 8 11.19 mp-29136 Sr6Cu3N5 0.4905 4.691465073 58.78 14 4.2 mp-30782 Sr6Mg23 0 2.168974738 93.44 29 3.22 mp-242 SrB6 0.035 3.417060889 28.76 7 4.11 mp-2080 SrBe13 0 2.424044218 11147.68 14 796.26 mp-1208630 SrC6 0 3.270211156 7.412 7 1.06 mp-30496 SrCd 0 4.88492559 9.41 2 4.71 mp-677 SrCd2 0 5.749780183 12.14 3 4.05 mp-1025402 SrCu 0 4.000956388 12.68 2 6.34 mp-2726 SrCu5 0 6.972726344 36.68 6 6.11 mp-21609 SrCuN 0.2621 5.064433467 12.82 3 4.27 mp-608072 SrIn 0 4.661915979 173.68 2 86.84 mp-20074 SrIn2 0 5.762914419 340.68 3 113.56 mp-1187198 SrMg2 0 2.399508735 11.32 3 3.77 mp-29973 SrN 0 3.854517961 6.82 2 3.41 mp-10564 SrN2 0 4.089657496 6.96 3 2.32 mp-21524 SrNiN 0 5.041450539 20.72 3 6.91 mp-2661 SrSi 0 3.451941633 8.38 2 4.19 mp-1727 SrSi2 0 3.472602102 10.08 3 3.36 mp-1698 SrSn 0 4.849131237 25.38 2 12.69 mp-50 Ta 0 16.38780395 312 1 312 mp-1079438 Ta2N 0 15.39304112 624.14 3 208.05 mp-13415 Ta3B2 0 14.70362601 943.36 5 188.67 mp-10142 Ta3B4 0 13.28435248 950.72 7 135.82 mp-568646 Ta3Si 0 13.88613422 937.7 4 234.43 mp-1187206 Ta3W 0 17.11634231 971.3 4 242.82 mp-1989 Ta5Si3 0 12.7874257 1565.1 8 195.64 mp-1097 TaB 0 13.98092219 315.68 2 157.84 mp-1108 TaB2 0 12.11755213 319.36 3 106.45 mp-1279 TaN 0 13.99558899 312.14 2 156.07 mp-11192 TaSi2 0 8.940924456 315.4 3 105.13 mp-567276 TaV2 0 10.38566089 1082 3 360.67 mp-1217811 TaW 0 17.65981087 347.3 2 173.65 mp-979289 TaW3 0 18.29084553 417.9 4 104.47 mp-72 Ti 0 4.64683663 11.7 1 11.7 mp-1202079 Ti21Mn25 0 6.379828993 291.2 46 6.33 mp-10721 Ti2C 0 4.43976924 23.522 3 7.84 mp-1191331 Ti2Co 0 5.816331995 56.2 3 18.73 mp-742 Ti2Cu 0 5.722180363 29.4 3 9.8 mp-861983 Ti2MnFe 0 6.549536628 25.644 4 6.41 mp-8282 Ti2N 0 4.881545292 23.54 3 7.85 mp-1808 Ti2Ni 0 5.725014052 37.3 3 12.43 mp-30875 Ti2Sn 0.0452 6.451610675 42.1 3 14.03 mp-1014229 Ti2Zn 0 5.462441931 25.95 3 8.65 mp-1823 Ti3Al 0 4.248868625 36.89 4 9.22 mp-2643 Ti3Cu4 0 6.748300444 59.1 7 8.44 mp-1079460 Ti3Sn 0 6.048168578 53.8 4 13.45 mp-2108 Ti5Si3 0 4.347039406 63.6 8 7.95 mp-505527 Ti5Si4 0 4.254735425 65.3 9 7.26 mp-27919 Ti8C5 0 4.54143797 94.21 13 7.25 mp-1953 TiAl 0 3.833901613 13.49 2 6.74 mp-567705 TiAl2 0 3.536390592 15.28 3 5.09 mp-542915 TiAl3 0 3.3657055 17.07 4 4.27 mp-631 TiC 0 4.879907059 11.822 2 5.91 mp-823 TiCo 0 6.714495322 44.5 2 22.25 mp-608 TiCo3 0 7.948540457 110.1 4 27.52 mp-568636 TiCr2 0 6.234565538 30.5 3 10.17 mp-2078 TiCu 0 6.440936363 17.7 2 8.85 mp-12546 TiCu3 0 7.648117875 29.7 4 7.42 mp-1188441 TiCu4 0 7.89299659 35.7 5 7.14 mp-305 TiFe 0 6.642034602 12.124 2 6.06 mp-866141 TiFe2Si 0.4023 6.758127762 14.248 4 3.56 mp-8648 TiFeSi 0 5.624878094 13.824 3 4.61 mp-21662 TiFeSi2 0 5.143235694 15.524 4 3.88 mp-1949 TiMn2 0 6.901373985 15.34 3 5.11 mp-865652 TiMn2Si 0 6.352313333 17.04 4 4.26 mp-865656 TiMn2W 0 10.69468704 50.64 4 12.66 mp-21606 TiMnSi2 0 4.99815749 16.92 4 4.23 mp-492 TiN 0 5.340297483 11.84 2 5.92 mp-1048 TiNi 0 6.412985726 25.6 2 12.8 mp-1409 TiNi3 0 7.958129861 53.4 4 13.35 mp-7092 TiSi 0 4.22430874 13.4 2 6.7 mp-1077503 TiSi2 0 4.027104901 15.1 3 5.03 mp-1216621 TiW 0 11.85552569 47 2 23.5 mp-1014230 TiZn 0 6.036542638 14.25 2 7.12 mp-21289 TiZn3 0 6.697660442 19.35 4 4.84 mp-146 V 0 6.312904043 385 1 385 mp-9208 V2B3 0 5.360224268 781.04 5 156.21 mp-20648 V2C 0 5.741137786 770.122 3 256.71 mp-33090 V2N 0 6.096388132 770.14 3 256.71 mp-2091 V3B2 0 5.846064712 1162.36 5 232.47 mp-569270 V3B4 0 5.426880995 1169.72 7 167.1 mp-1585 V3Co 0 6.985026991 1187.8 4 296.95 mp-1187695 V3Cr 0 6.599355542 1164.4 4 291.1 mp-1079399 V3Fe 0 6.896938402 1155.424 4 288.86 mp-972071 V3Mo 0 7.371335048 1195.1 4 298.77 mp-7226 V3Ni 0 6.898754916 1168.9 4 292.23 mp-1216708 V3Ni2 0 7.272789251 1182.8 5 236.56 mp-30883 V4Zn5 0 6.973256469 1552.75 9 172.53 mp-1206441 V5B6 0 5.503664211 1947.08 11 177.01 mp-28731 V6C5 0 5.617822598 2310.61 11 210.06 mp-1188283 V8N 0 6.188837954 3080.14 9 342.24 mp-9973 VB 0 5.631694261 388.68 2 194.34 mp-1491 VB2 0 5.10857069 392.36 3 130.79 mp-542614 VCo3 0 8.706330003 483.4 4 120.85 mp-1216394 VCr 0 6.919500541 394.4 2 197.2 mp-1187696 VCr3 0 7.195388401 413.2 4 103.3 mp-866134 VFe3 0 7.739814966 386.272 4 96.57 mp-1018027 VN 0 6.23865029 385.14 2 192.57 mp-11531 VNi2 0 8.166036424 412.8 3 137.6 mp-171 VNi3 0 8.437749253 426.7 4 106.67 mp-91 W 0 18.85400756 35.3 1 35.3 mp-1894 WC 0 15.3503693 35.422 2 17.71 mp-1187739 Y 0 4.547349703 31 1 31 mp-1199133 Y11Sn10 0 6.16980642 528 21 25.14 mp-1200338 Y15Ni32 0 7.163935221 909.8 47 19.36 mp-1334 Y2C 0 4.535817916 62.122 3 20.71 mp-21294 Y2In 0 5.669659581 229 3 76.33 mp-574339 Y2Ni7 0 7.692491082 159.3 9 17.7 mp-1200613 Y3C4 0 4.91444971 93.488 7 13.36 mp-1105598 Y3Co 0 5.148898384 125.8 4 31.45 mp-1105835 Y3In5 0 6.657923024 928 8 116 mp-1105633 Y3Ni 0 5.094566393 106.9 4 26.73 mp-582134 Y3Ni2 0 5.562940279 120.8 5 24.16 mp-9459 Y4C5 0 4.729248328 124.61 9 13.85 mp-1200885 Y4C7 0.6144 4.541710694 124.854 11 11.35 mp-2538 Y5Si3 0 4.43624154 160.1 8 20.01 mp-567412 Y5Sn3 0 5.778885589 211.1 8 26.39 mp-1188434 Y5Tl3 0 7.379251429 12755 8 1594.38 mp-972364 Yb 0 7.00586663 17.1 1 17.1 mp-1542 YB2 0 5.045298476 38.36 3 12.79 mp-9546 Yb2C3 0 8.726729992 34.566 5 6.91 mp-1207599 Yb2Si 0.0437 7.742296269 35.9 3 11.97 mp-570050 Yb2Sn 0 8.771931394 52.9 3 17.63 mp-864675 Yb3N2 0.4892 10.30057431 51.58 5 10.32 mp-637 YB4 0 4.30848155 45.72 5 9.14 mp-1189298 YbB4 0 6.949843493 31.82 5 6.36 mp-419 YbB6 0.1059 5.614593733 39.18 7 5.6 mp-1103975 YbC6 0 5.687258796 17.832 7 2.55 mp-1857 YbCd 0 8.562931183 19.83 2 9.92 mp-1187653 YbCd3 0 8.670606633 25.29 4 6.32 mp-1193534 YBe13 0 2.590983849 11172 14 798 mp-864757 YbN2 0 8.32527653 17.38 3 5.79 mp-10651 YbSi 0 7.137531395 18.8 2 9.4 mp-1077404 YbSi2 0 6.315081244 20.5 3 6.83 mp-2806 YbSn 0 8.889744215 35.8 2 17.9 mp-865373 YCo 0 5.420377438 63.8 2 31.9 mp-1294 YCo2 0 7.581892784 96.6 3 32.2 mp-1080443 YCu 0 5.830094464 37 2 18.5 mp-2698 YCu2 0 6.706395025 43 3 14.33 mp-2797 YCu5 0 7.535186104 61 6 10.17 mp-2399 YHg 0 9.243619826 61.2 2 30.6 mp-22704 YIn 0 6.291688649 198 2 99 mp-20131 YIn3 0 7.135476219 532 4 133 mp-615 YMg 0 3.419333592 33.32 2 16.66 mp-1188082 YMg149 0.2723 1.786909137 376.68 150 2.51 mp-865376 YMg3 0 2.731203846 37.96 4 9.49 mp-2114 YN 0.2858 5.742757452 31.14 2 15.57 mp-1364 YNi 0 6.05878909 44.9 2 22.45 mp-569196 YNi3 0 7.60099949 72.7 4 18.18 mp-2152 YNi5 0 7.801971483 100.5 6 16.75 mp-9972 YSi 0 4.464025792 32.7 2 16.35 mp-11575 YTl 0 8.800691481 4231 2 2115.5 mp-1216020 Zn35Cu17 0 7.949086791 191.25 52 3.68 mp-1368 Zn8Cu5 0 8.049427048 50.4 13 3.88 mp-987 ZnCu 0 8.252022453 8.55 2 4.28 mp-131 Zr 0 6.4460921 37.1 1 37.1 mp-684623 Zr10C9 0 6.396416519 372.098 19 19.58 mp-1216441 Zr14Cu51 0 8.184391095 825.4 65 12.7 mp-2544 Zr2Bel7 0 3.115805578 14643.2 19 770.69 mp-1018104 Zr2Cd 0 7.235683329 76.93 3 25.64 mp-193 Zr2Cu 0 6.968518148 80.2 3 26.73 mp-1014265 Zr2N 0 6.644608678 74.34 3 24.78 mp-328 Zr2Ni 0 7.189329356 88.1 3 29.37 mp-2717 Zr2Ni7 0 8.441842565 171.5 9 19.06 mp-1278 Zr2Si 0 5.972090741 75.9 3 25.3 mp-31205 Zr3Fe 0 6.808804543 111.724 4 27.93 mp-277 Zr3N4 1.2736 6.143260208 111.86 7 15.98 mp-1207024 Zr3Si2 0 5.812221304 114.7 5 22.94 mp-977585 Zr3Tl 0 8.76301174 4311.3 4 1077.83 mp-1106020 Zr5SiSn3 0 7.175692279 243.3 9 27.03 mp-510522 Zr5Sn3 0 7.328539753 241.6 8 30.2 mp-543001 Zr5Sn4 0 7.607774398 260.3 9 28.92 mp-582924 Zr6Fe23 0 7.603506886 232.352 29 8.01 mp-1188077 Zr7Cu10 0 7.760947992 319.7 17 18.81 mp-1472 ZrB2 0 6.03310523 44.46 3 14.82 mp-30445 ZrBe13 0 2.771775575 11178.1 14 798.44 mp-11283 ZrBe5 0 3.623393534 4322.1 6 720.35 mp-2795 ZrC 0 6.50296405 37.222 2 18.61 mp-14208 LiYSi 0 3.416483679 118.3 3 39.43 mp-504790 LiYSn 0 5.088427374 135.3 3 45.1 mp-1934 LiZn 0 4.082778098 88.15 2 44.07 mp-867252 LiZn2Ni 0 6.431958586 104.6 4 26.15 mp-1185421 LiZnNi2 0 6.737390407 115.95 4 28.99 mp-1038 MgCu2 0 5.816113247 14.32 3 4.77 mp-2675 MgNi2 0 6.032501485 30.12 3 10.04 mp-35 Mn 0 8.265241283 1.82 1 1.82 mp-542830 Mn23C6 0 7.843043604 42.592 29 1.47 mp-20318 Mn2B 0 7.609817023 7.32 3 2.44 mp-864955 Mn2CrCo 0 7.716185888 45.84 4 11.46 mp-12659 Mn2Nb 0 8.479514449 89.24 3 29.75 mp-10118 Mn3B4 0 6.153079405 20.18 7 2.88 mp-1185970 Mn3Co 0 8.77177245 38.26 4 9.56 mp-20211 Mn3Si 0 7.078772648 7.16 4 1.79 mp-21256 Mn7C3 0 7.858680097 13.106 10 1.31 mp-771 MnAl 0 5.127964867 3.61 2 1.81 mp-5529 MnFe2Si 0 7.393942888 4.368 4 1.09 mp-11501 MnNi3 0 8.49819932 43.52 4 10.88 mp-316 MnV 0 7.40626179 386.82 2 193.41 mp-864953 MnV2Cr 0 7.151615215 781.22 4 195.31 mp-864984 MnV3 0 6.851730115 1156.82 4 289.2 mp-129 Mo 0 10.02490812 40.1 1 40.1 mp-10172 Na 0 1.028520018 3.43 1 3.43 mp-75 Nb 0 8.427646884 85.6 1 85.6 mp-1080021 Nb2B3 0 7.075689381 182.24 5 36.45 mp-1079585 Nb2N 0 8.022840826 171.34 3 57.11 mp-20689 Nb3B2 0 7.752632878 264.16 5 52.83 mp-10255 Nb3B4 0 7.190484651 271.52 7 38.79 mp-7250 Nb6Co7 0 8.885808577 743.2 13 57.17 mp-2580 NbB 0 7.429359441 89.28 2 44.64 mp-450 NbB2 0 6.793798027 92.96 3 30.99 mp-977426 NbCo3 0 9.188007818 184 4 46 mp-548 NbCr2 0 7.767773551 104.4 3 34.8 mp-1221111 NbFe 0 8.52821509 86.024 2 43.01 mp-1192350 NbFe2 0 8.803120472 86.448 3 28.82 mp-1220799 NbNi 0 8.842814701 99.5 2 49.75 mp-1451 NbNi3 0 8.950269576 127.3 4 31.82 mp-1220522 NbVCo 0 8.073557923 503.4 3 167.8 mp-1220374 NbVCr 0 7.38520832 480 3 160 mp-1220599 NbVNi 0 7.996372687 484.5 3 161.5 mp-1220316 NbW 0 13.43138832 120.9 2 60.45 mp-123 Nd 0 6.758696201 57.5 1 57.5 mp-567415 Nd2B5 0 5.945180936 133.4 7 19.06 mp-1800 Nd2C3 0 6.738088162 115.366 5 23.07 mp-356 Nd2Co17 0 8.660874962 672.6 19 35.4 mp-1084826 Nd2Co3 0 8.309643274 213.4 5 42.68 mp-1106011 Nd3Co 0 7.282343973 205.3 4 51.33 

1. A mixed ionic-electronic conductor (MIEC) in contact with a solid electrolyte comprising: a material having a bandgap less than 3 eV, the material comprising an end-member phase directly connected to an alkali metal by a tie-line in an equilibrium phase diagram, and the material being thermodynamically stable with the solid electrolyte; and a plurality of open pores, formed within the MIEC, to facilitate motion of the alkali metal to at least one of store the alkali metal in the plurality of open pores or release the alkali metal from the plurality of open pores, wherein the solid electrolyte has an ionic conductivity to ions of the alkali metal greater than 1 mS cm⁻¹, a thickness less than 100 μm, and comprises at least one of a ceramic or a polymer.
 2. The MIEC of claim 1, wherein the material excludes any lanthanides.
 3. The MIEC of claim 1, wherein the material excludes any rare earth metals.
 4. The MIEC of claim 1, wherein: the solid electrolyte comprises the polymer; and the polymer comprises at least one of a polyethylene, a polypropylene, a polyethylene oxide, a polyacetal, a polyolefin, a poly(alkylene oxide), a polymethacrylate, a polycarbonate, a polystyrene, a polyester, a polyamide, a polyimide, a polyamideimide, a polyarylate, a polyarylsulfone, a polyethersulfone, a polyphenylene sulfide, a polyvinyl chloride, a polysulfone, a polyimide, a polyetherimide, a polytetrafluoroethylene, a polyetherketone, a polyether etherketone, a polyether ketone, a polybenzoxazole, a polyphthalide, a polyanhydride, a polyvinyl ether, a polyvinyl thioether, a polyvinyl alcohol, a polyvinyl ketone, a polyvinyl halide, a polyvinyl nitrile, a polyvinyl ester, a polysulfonate, a polysulfide, a polythioester, a polysulfone, a polysulfonamide, a polyurea, a polyphosphazene, a polysilazane, a polyethylene terephthalate, a polybutylene terephthalate, a polyurethane, an ethylene propylene diene rubber, a polytetrafluoroethylene, a fluorinated ethylene propylene, a perfluoroalkoxyethylene, a polychlorotrifluoroethylene, or a polyvinylidene fluoride.
 5. The MIEC of claim 1, wherein: the solid electrolyte comprises the ceramic; and the ceramic comprises at least one of: Li₇La₃Zr₂O₁₂; Li₃OX wherein X is at least one of Cl, Br, or I; Li₃SX wherein X is at least one of Cl, Br, or I; Li_(1.3)Al_(0.3)Ti_(1.7)(PO₄)₃; Li₆PS₅Cl; Li₁₀MP₂S₁₂ wherein M is at least one of Ge, Si, or Sn; Li₃PS₄; Li₇P₃S₁₁; Li₃N; Li₂S; LiBH₄; Li₃BO₃; Li₂S—P₂S₅; Li₂S—P₂S₅-L₄SiO₄; Li₂S—Ga₂S₃—GeS₂; Li₂S—Sb₂S₃—GeS₂; Li_(3.25)—Ge_(0.25)—P_(0.75)S₄; (La_(1−x)Li_(x))TiO₃ wherein 0<x<1; Li₆La₂CaTa₂O₁₂; Li₆La₂ANb₂O₁₂ wherein A is at least one of Ca, Sr, or Ba; Li₆La₃Zr_(1.5)WO₁₂; Li_(6.5)La₃Zr_(1.5)TaO₁₂; Li_(6.625)Al_(0.25)La₃Zr₂O₁₂; Li₃BO_(2.5)N_(0.5); Li₉SiAlO₈; Li_(1+x)Al_(x)Ge_(2−x)(PO₄)₃; Li_(1+x)Al_(x)Ti_(2−x)(PO₄)₃; Li_(1+x)Ti_(2−x)Al_(x)Si_(y)(PO₄)_(3−y) wherein 0<x<1 and 0≤y<1; LiAl_(x)Zr_(2−x)(PO₄)₃; LiTi_(x)Zr_(2−x)(PO₄)₃ wherein 0<x<2; Li₆PS₅X, wherein X is at least one of Cl, Br, or I; Li₂In_(x)Sc_(0.666−x)Cl₄ wherein 0≤x≤0.666; or Li_(3−x)E_(1−x)Zr_(x)Cl₆ wherein E is at least one of Y or Er.
 6. An anode comprising: the mixed ionic-electronic conductor (MIEC) of claim 1, wherein the MIEC does not reversibly store and release the alkali metal.
 7. The anode of claim 6, wherein: the MIEC has a thickness of about 0.5 μm to about 67 μm; the MIEC has a porosity greater than 45%; and the anode has an areal capacity of about 6±0.5 mAh cm⁻².
 8. The anode of claim 6, further comprising the alkali metal.
 9. A battery comprising: the anode of claim 6; and the solid electrolyte.
 10. An anode comprising a mixed ionic-electronic conductor (MIEC), the MIEC comprising: at least one of A_(x)B_(y), A_(x)B_(y)C_(z), or A_(x)B_(y)C_(z)D_(w); and a plurality of open pores, formed within the MIEC, to facilitate motion of an alkali metal to at least one of store the alkali metal in the plurality of open pores or release the alkali metal from the plurality of open pores, wherein: the MIEC does not reversibly store and release the alkali metal; the at least one of A_(x)B_(y), A_(x)B_(y)C_(z), or A_(x)B_(y)C_(z)D_(w) comprises an end-member phase directly connected to an alkali metal by a tie-line in an equilibrium phase diagram; A is the alkali metal; at least one of B, C, or D is at least one of an alkaline earth metal, a group 13 element, Sc, Y, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg, C, N, Si, Sn, Pb, Bi, La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Ho, Er, or Yb; and x, y, z, and w each have a value of about 1 to about
 149. 11. The anode claim 10, wherein B, C, and D are each at least one of an alkaline earth metal, a group 13 element, Sc, Y, Ti, Zr, Hf, V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, W, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Hg, C, N, Si, Sn, Pb, Bi, La, Ce, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Ho, Er, or Yb.
 12. The anode of claim 10, wherein B is an alkaline earth metal.
 13. The anode of claim 10, wherein B is a group 13 element.
 14. The anode of claim 10, wherein B is a period 4 transition metal.
 15. The anode of claim 10, wherein B is a period 5 transition metal.
 16. The anode of claim 10, wherein B is a period 6 transition metal.
 17. The anode of claim 10, wherein B is a lanthanide.
 18. The anode of claim 10, wherein the alkali metal comprises at least one of lithium (Li), sodium (Na), or potassium (K).
 19. An anode, comprising: a mixed ionic-electronic conductor (MIEC) comprising Ti_(w)Al_(x)C_(y)Ni_(z); and a plurality of open pores, formed within the MIEC, to facilitate motion of an alkali metal to at least one of store the alkali metal in the plurality of open pores or release the alkali metal from the plurality of open pores, wherein x, y, z, and w each have a value less than or equal to
 8. 20. A battery comprising: the anode of claim 19; and a solid electrolyte, coupled to a portion of the MIEC, the solid electrolyte comprising polyethylene oxide (PEO). 